balance of payments

How a country explains its financial transactions with other countries as a series of different accounts that may be in surplus or deficit.

balance sheet

Statement by a limited company of the assets and liabilities it has on the last day of a given accounting period.

behavioural research

The study of human preferences, perception and activities and the influences on such patterns, often conducted by psychologists.

bidding

The process whereby public and private sector organizations may seek to compete for an event or conference/meeting/fair as part of a global competition to attract the lucrative market for such events. The Olympic and Commonwealth Games bids embody this process where very complex bids are prepared as part of a selection process.

biodiversity

The biological variety of life on Earth, a habitat or an environment.

biosecurity

The biological risks that may threaten a country, transmitted by tourists as they cross borders and enter countries.

bluetooth

A wireless technology that allows the exchange of data and information over short distances creating what are called a Personal Area Networks.

boosterism

An approach to tourism planning adopted since the 1960s, typified by an attitude that tourism is good and of benefit to hosts with little concern for impacts.

Bradford

A former industrial city in northern England whose economy was based on manufacturing and textiles.

brand

A name, sign, term or feature which a producer uses to differentiate their product from the competition.

brand image

According to Kotler et al. (2005: 906) it is a ‘set of beliefs that consumers hold about a particular brand’.

BREXIT

budget accommodation

Low-cost accommodation with the minimum standards of provision of service.

built environment

Places that are predominantly constructed, such as towns, cities and historic houses.

bundle of services

A concept to describe how a series of services (i.e. accommodation, transport and attractions) are linked together to produce a product or offering.

business plan

A detailed attempt to set out over a given time frame (i.e. one to five years) the objectives, strategy and expected profit and loss accounts of a business, usually prepared so a lender can assess the financial risks of financing the project or venture.

business travel

Travel related to the main functions of work, including attending meetings, conferences and exhibitions, or to sell products and services.

capacity utilization

How an organization chooses to use the capacity (i.e. space) it has available.

capital investment

The injection of money to purchase plant, machinery or infrastructure to improve the supply/production of goods.

carrying capacity

The volume of use an area or resource may sustain without detriment.

cash flow

The volume of cash received and amount spent.

CCTV

Closed Circuit Television used to monitor activity and as a surveillance tool to reduce criminal behaviour in public and private spaces.

census

A comprehensive statistical process to enumerate the population of an area or country at one point in time, which is normally carried out at ten-year intervals.

Centre Parcs

A company that operates holiday villages across Europe, located in natural, often forest, settings, which provide all-weather facilities for families.

charter flight

A non-scheduled aircraft flight, organized and contracted to a tour operator.

city break

A holiday taken in an urban (city) location.

City of Culture

An annual event in Europe where a city bids to showcase its culture and arts for an entire year. A major part of the bidding process to secure the status is how a programme of events will be provided to raise the profile of the city in question as a cultural destination. The City of Culture concept is often associated with raising the international profile of a destination which is seeking to grow its market position and to attract a wider range of visitors than it currently does.

climate change

A progressive shift in the weather patterns, often linked with global warming.

Club Méditerranée

(see Chapter 10) A French-based all-inclusive tour operator with its own resorts located across the world.

clustering

Geographically, to congregate or group together.

coastal resort

A visitor destination built in close proximity to a seaside area, usually with a beach, water environment and leisure/tourism facilities.

coastal tourism

Tourism located in close proximity to a coastline, which is often linear in form and geographical distribution.

coastal zone management

Integrated planning and management approach to coastal areas adopted to achieve desired environmental, social and economic objectives.

coca-colonization

Reference to ‘Coca-Cola’, a product that has gained global sales and acts as a prominent symbol of Westernization.

Co-creation

is the process by which a business (physical or electronically) engages the consumer in helping to create their own experience.

code of conduct

A means of setting out to tourists how to behave in different environments to respect the social, cultural, economic and environmental values and resources of the host area.

cognitive

A psychological term that refers to the mental processes associated with how we think and acquire knowledge, based on behavioural elements (actions) and emotions/feelings (affective components) and involving the process of perception.

cognitive map

A map derived by an individual based upon the process of encoding, storing, manipulating and processing information that can be geographically referenced: a conceptual representation of place-based experiences.

collaboration

To cooperate with another organization or individual on a project or business venture with agreed common objectives and outcomes.

community-oriented approach

Planning tourism from a community perspective to incorporate their needs and requirements, epitomized by Murphy (1985).

competition

The rivalry between different companies or organizations seeking to supply goods to a particular market.

competitive advantage

A greater lead by an organization gained over its other competitors by offering better value, quality, services or brands.

complementary services

Those that add value or have a synergy with an existing service, such as in-flight catering on a scheduled flight.

computable general equilibrium model

A tool used to model the tourism economy, which is applied in tourism satellite account models.

computer reservation system (CRS)

A digital system to provide access to intermediaries to make bookings, reservations and check availability.

congestion charging

A financial penalty for using a car or vehicle to enter an area that suffers with vehicle congestion.

consolidator

Brokers who sell the surplus capacity of the airline sector.

constraints

Barriers that prevent an individual from undertaking an activity.

consumer behaviour

The actions of people (as individuals and groups) who purchase products or services for personal use.

consumption

The process a consumer engages in to enjoy a product, service or other phenomenon, such as a landscape or experience.

contemporary tourism

Current tourism trends and patterns rather than historical forms of tourism.

contestable market

Where businesses may easily enter a market because there are few entry or exit barriers to setting up.

contract caterers

Businesses providing food supplies to the hospitality sector on a pre-packed and chilled/prepared basis.

convertible bond

A fixed rate bond, issued by a company, that can be converted to shares during the life of the bond or held until maturity for repayment.

core product

The central feature of an attraction that visitors go to see.

corporate culture

The outlook, direction and internal values of an organization which employees are expected to work towards.

corporate environmental management

The process by which large corporations or companies manage their impact on the environment through environmental auditing and setting targets to improve performance. Linked with corporate social responsibility (CSR), which is a process of improving a company’s impact and relationships with the people it affects.

corporate strategy

How an organization positions itself to the market, and the tactics and approach it adopts.

corporate travel

The travel needs of individual businesses or corporations, typically for business purposes (although it may also include incentive travel as a reward for employees).

country house

A large rural residence with historical associations often set in gardens or parkland.

creativity

The use of personal or intellectual skills to develop an idea or product that is new, novel or unusual.

criminology

Area of law concerned with the study of criminal behaviour, activities and its causes and effects.

cross-elasticity

The percentage change in the demand for one product in relation to the percentage change in the price for the alternative product.

cultural baggage

The beliefs, values and behaviour modes that tourists take with them on holiday.

cultural brokerage

A bridge between the host community and visitor.

cultural history

The oral and written history of a specific population group within a particular society or location.

customer service

Point of interaction between an employee of a tourism operation and the purchaser/consumer.

data collection

A process whereby information is obtained through research, which may involve primary data, such as questionnaire surveys, or the collation of secondary data sources such as published statistics.

debt

The amount owed by one person or organization to another.

decision-making

The process of making choices between different options.

deep ecology

An ecological philosophy which values the environment more highly than human progress in industrialized nations, sometimes referred to as ‘dark green’.

deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

A medical condition associated with blood clotting due to immobility during long periods of inactivity, such as a long-haul flight.

defaulting loan

A loan which is in arrears and not able to be repaid.

demand

The number of people who choose to undertake an activity.

de-marketing

A policy adopted not to promote an area, in an attempt to help reduce the number of visitors and pressure posed by its popularity.

demographic

The term used to describe the population, and its study (demography).

demonstration effect

Changes in the resident population of a tourism destination resulting from observing and mixing with tourists, usually used in reference to the less developed countries.

deregulation

The removal of controls to stimulate free competition.

destination

The combination of different tourism components (i.e. attractions, accommodation, transport, resources and the infrastructure) in a geographical location, promoted by a tourism organization.

destination benchmarking

Measuring the performance of tourist destinations.

destination image

The perceived and promoted elements of a destination, which determine appeal to visitors.

destination management system

An electronic system that combines the tourism offering of a destination on behalf of different suppliers and stakeholders, often managed by a destination management organization.

destination marketing

The process by which destinations are promoted.

destination marketing organization

An organization that promotes the unique features of a destination to potential visitors, representing its stakeholders in the local tourism industry.

destination positioning

A research method to evaluate the competition a destination is facing.

destination substitutability

Selection of alternative destinations with similar characteristics, which may easily replace another destination.

development process

The different stages through which an area or location progresses, usually associated with the social and economic improvement of a locality or country.

direct employment

The jobs created as a direct result of visitor expenditure and tourism activity.

directional selling

Where a travel agent tries to sell a product from their own company rather than that of a competitor.

discounted cash flow

A means of capital budgeting or expenditure appraisal that looks at projected cash flows over the life of a project, and forms the basis of investment appraisal methods such as NPVM and IRR.

discretionary spending

The amount of money available to an individual for spending on non-essential items, such as holidays and leisure activities.

disintermediation

The process whereby existing intermediaries in the distribution channel are replaced or substituted by organizations selling tourism products directly to consumers.

displacement

Movement of the host population away from their place of residence to make way for tourism development.

distribution channel

A series of organizations which make a product or service available through the process of marketing.

dividend

The amount of earnings distributed by a company to shareholders.

Djerba Declaration

Outcome of World Tourism Organization Conference on Tourism and Climate Change in 2003, which endorsed the Kyoto Protocol on the need to reduce tourism-generated emissions.

domestic tourism

Tourist travel within one’s own country.

dynamic packaging

An electronic tool provided by tour operators and e-mediaries to allow customers to customize a package, by picking and mixing the different components to suit their needs and budget.

e-booking

An electronic booking made with an intermediary or tourism business via the Internet.

ecocentrism

The view that nature must be preserved for its intrinsic values.

ecological footprint

A technique to evaluate the environmental impact of human activities, which has been applied in the study of tourism.

ecology

The study of relationships between living organisms and their environment.

e-commerce

Undertaking business by electronic means.

econometrics

The field of economics that builds complex models using statistical analysis to forecast changes in tourism and to understand how the tourism economy operates and changes under certain assumptions.

economic cycle

A period of time through which an economy functions, used to identify whether conditions are conducive to growth, stagnating or in decline.

economic dependency

The reliance upon a particular activity for the economy to function, such as tourism.

economic-industry approach

Where tourism is viewed as a tool that government can use for economic restructuring, employment development and as an export industry.

economics

The study of how the economy operates in different contexts and the importance of individuals and organizations in the function of the economy.

economies of scale

To reduce the average cost of production by purchasing or producing in bulk, therefore decreasing the unit cost of the output.

ecotourism

A term devised by Ceballos-Lascurain to describe tourism in relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas.

ECPAT

An acronym for the non-government organization End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism, which seeks to stop tourist paedophiles.

Edwardian

An historical period associated with the reign of Edward V from 1901–1914.

effective demand

Actual or recorded levels of demand.

effectuation

A concept based on the idea that the future is unpredictable but can be controlled.

e-HR

The digital provision of human resource services.

elasticity of demand

A ratio to measure the percentage in tourism demand and percentage change in disposable income over a set period of time.

e-mediaries

Electronic intermediaries who retail travel products.

empowerment

Providing employees with more power to deal with work issues.

enclave tourism

The geographical development of exclusive forms of tourism, often involving integrated resorts, where the local population have little interaction with tourists, and economic benefits to the local area are limited.

entrepreneur

Individual who undertakes to establish a business venture to make a profit, often using their own capital to take risks on whether the venture will be successful.

environment

The external conditions surrounding an object, form of life or human activity.

environmental and cultural protection

environmental auditing

Evaluation of business practice to examine environmental performance in relation to energy, transport, purchasing, waste, health and the local environment.

environmental bubble

A term coined by Cohen to describe tourist travel within the safety of a pre-packaged, organized charter tour.

environmental impact assessment

Project assessment used in the planning control system of the adverse and beneficial impacts of a specific development.

environmental policies

A series of statements by companies to outline their environmental performance, policies and practices.

environmental risk

Natural hazards and potential risks posed to tourists through their activities.

environmentally conscious

Being aware of environmental issues and/or taking steps to reduce one’s own impact on the environment.

e-tailing

Electronic retailing of products and services.

ethnicity

An identifiable group of people distinguished on the basis of racial, cultural, linguistic or other specific features.

e-tourism

The digital purchasing, processing and delivery of tourism products and services to consumers.

e-travel

The facilitation of travel by electronic means.

EU

The European Union, set up by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, now comprises 15 Member States and ten new Member States from Eastern Europe.

eutrophication

The process by which increased nutrients in the water robs the water of oxygen and leads to the death of aquatic life.

event

A staged or planned occurrence, designed for public enjoyment or for the needs of a specific audience, including a fair, carnival, religious ceremony, parade, entertainment, exhibition, concert, conference, sporting occasion and special or hallmark event such as the Olympic Games.

event management

The practical aspects of preparing for and staging events.

event tourism

The strategic context of events in realizing wider objectives (such as tourism, economic, social or cultural dimensions).

experience economy

failure rate

The number or percentage of ventures likely to fail within a set time frame, typically within one year of establishment.

fair trade

A movement to reform unjust trading practices, involving the payment of fair prices for goods and services to producers, and the development of equitable trading relationships.

family–life balance

The relationship between the amount of work one undertakes and the ability to balance that with home and family commitments.

Fantasy City

Derived from Hannigan’s study to denote a city’s economy in certain districts, based on entertainment, fantasy experiences, leisure consumption and cultural significance.

farm tourism

A farm-based tourism enterprise resulting from diversification and often using family labour.

festival

A traditional and contemporary form of event which Getz (1997: 8) defined as a ‘public, themed celebration’ and they may help to maintain community values through increasing a sense of social identity.

financial reporting

The requirement of a limited company to report its financial statements.

financial risk

The likelihood of suffering a financial loss.

financier

Someone who finances a project or business venture.

fiscal

Financial issues.

fixed assets

Also called a capital asset, an item purchased and used by a business for a projected life, such as land, buildings, plant or machinery, and is written off (depreciated) each year against profits.

flagship attractions

High-profile major attractions.

flow

A leisure construct suggesting that a participant can achieve a state of optimal arousal, resulting from experiences matching their skills/ability.

food and beverage

The two associated sectors in the hotel sector that provide the nourishment services for guests.

foot and mouth

Highly infectious virus spread among livestock.

Fordist

The dominance of large, vertically integrated companies producing standardized products, largely based on price competition.

forecasting

The process of estimating future demand and predicting future market conditions.

fossil fuels

Finite energy supplies including coal, natural gas, oil and those derived from the geological processes of fossilization.

franchising

The transfer of intellectual property rights, such as a trademark, brand or advice to other parties (franchisee), to allow them to conduct business with a minimum level of investment.

frontier arrival

The number of people arriving at a country’s borders as tourist arrivals (as opposed to migrants).

frontline staff

Those who interact directly with customers, such as receptionists, cashiers, tour guides, check-in staff and tour representatives.

gamification

The process of engaging people in a competition or game as a form of online marketing of a product or service.

gap year

A student ‘year out’ of academic study or a year out of employment to travel overseas.

gateway

An entry point to a country, such as a major airport (e.g. Heathrow, New York and Tokyo) or port.

geography

The study of man and the environment, and how phenomena are located and organized on the Earth’s surface in terms of spatial relationships.

gig economy

gîte

A French farm cottage used for holidays.

global distribution system (GDS)

The merging of airline computer reservation systems to create global digital systems for travel bookings and reservations.

global warming

The rise in average temperature of the planet over time, thought to be a result of human activity on the planet, mainly industry and agriculture, often referred to as the greenhouse effect.

globalization

A process of change and development in the world economic system, affecting trading and cultural exchanges and often resulting in standardization of products and institutions.

goodwill

The net assets of a business minus the total value of the business.

government

Organization responsible for the management of a country’s affairs.

GP

A General Practitioner, a family doctor.

grading system

The assignment of a category to accommodation according to its facilities and quality.

Grand Tour

A circuit tour of Europe undertaken by wealthy travellers for cultural, educational and health reasons from the sixteenth century through to the nineteenth century.

green tourism

Often used interchangeably with sustainable tourism, tourism based either on the environment or with environmental values in mind.

greenhouse gases

Components of the atmosphere that are thought to lead to global warming, including water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone, methane, nitrous oxide (NOx) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

grey literature

gross domestic product (GDP)

The overall financial value of the goods and services produced by an economy over a time period.

guest

Someone who stays in a location other than their own residence, who may be accommodated by the hospitality sector or by friends and relatives.

guide book

A publication by a tourist destination or travel writer to detail an area’s attractions, facilities and highlights, which became popular after the eighteenth century.

hedonism

The pursuit of pleasure, sometimes associated with pursuing an activity to excess, which gives immediate gratification.

heritage industry

A term coined to describe the commercialization of historic attractions, events, and places for the purposes of tourism and leisure, which is associated with debates on how authentic and real these experiences are in relation to historical facts.

historic city

A town or city with a large number of heritage resources.

holiday brochure

A printed colour magazine (or electronic version) compiled by a tour operator to sell a holiday, featuring destinations and other products.

holiday camp

A form of holiday provision with multiple accommodation units and combined social, dining and entertainment facilities, popularized by entrepreneurs such as Butlins in the 1930s. Many modern-day camps have been redeveloped into leisure parks.

holiday representative

A person employed by a tour operator in a destination area to look after the well-being of visitors who have bought the tour operator’s products.

hospitality

Care and kindness in welcoming strangers or guests, although in industry terms it is widely used to denote the accommodation and food service sectors.

host

Someone who accommodates a guest.

host–guest relationship

The nature of the association between tourists and residents within a tourism destination.

hub and spoke operation

A concept of airline operation that describes major gateways or ports of entry as ‘hubs’, with feeder aircraft services to outlying destinations using smaller aircraft as a ‘spoke’, like a bicycle wheel.

Jhuman Development Index (HDI)

A United Nation’s composite measure of the state of socioeconomic development in countries.

human resource management

An activity focused on managing human capital (i.e. the workforce).

human rights

Internationally accepted standards of how human beings should be treated by other human beings, organizations and governments.

hypercompetition

Rapid pace of change in competition for products in an environment of deregulation to encourage competition.

hypothesis

A proposition or assumption that can be tested through research.

IMF

International Monetary Fund, an international organization of 184 countries to promote international monetary cooperation, exchange rate stability and to provide temporary financial assistance to countries with balance of payment problems.

indigenous people

The people of a country who claim to be the original inhabitants, with an identifiable culture and society.

indirect employment

The jobs created within the tourism supply sector but not as a direct result of tourism activity.

induced employment

The jobs created as a result of tourism expenditure as local residents spend money earned from tourism.

induction

The formal introduction to how an organization works and an explanation of the expectations, roles and responsibilities of an employee in relation to the corporate culture.

industry–education collaboration

The interaction of universities, colleges and schools with the world of industry.

inflation

Increase in prices in the economy and the relative fall in the purchasing value of money.

information communication technology (ICT)

Hardware, software and netware used by information systems to transmit, store and manipulate digital information.

innovation

An idea, product or development that consumers or other organizations view as new and novel.

innovation

See Chapter 9.

input–output model

A tool used to measure the impact of tourism demand on the economy.

intangible

Something which cannot be seen, touched or felt.

intermediaries

Agents in the supply chain who broker services for other producers.

internal rate of return

An interest rate that equates to a net present value of zero when applied to a given projected cash flow.

international business

Undertaking business at an international scale, involving investment and activities that span a number of countries.

international tourism

Tourism that involves crossing an international border and a stay of 24 hours or more.

internationalization of business

Business activities that occur at a global scale, and at least outside one country.

internet

Global network of computers that are independent but interconnected by digital means.

interpretation

A communication-based activity to explain to visitors the meaning or significance of a place, object, culture, event or occurrence, that aims to enrich the visitor experience and achieve site management goals.

intrapreneurship

Process whereby an individual or group of people within an organization envision something and make it happen, which may be radically different, exciting and novel.

investment flow

The process by which capital and funds transfer from a source to a recipient.

investment risk

The likelihood of an investment either succeeding or failing and the invested capital being lost.

Irridex

A framework for assessing the host population response to tourism development, derived by Doxey (1975).

itineraries

A planned pattern of travel by tourists, which may include stops to stay overnight en route to a destination.

Kyoto Protocol

An international treaty that came into force in 2005, binding some 141 signatories in the developed world to cut greenhouse gas emissions.

last chance tourism

Destinations which were deemed to be under threat or disappearing.

latent demand

Demand which has yet to be realized due to real or perceived barriers.

leadership

The skill of being able to use interpersonal skills to influence others to undertake what you require, particularly in a management role. It may involve liaison, being a spokesperson, negotiator and persuader.

leakage

The money which flows out of the local or national tourism economy during its circulation and spending by tourists on goods and services imported from outside the economic system.

learning behaviour

The process by which a person develops an understanding and image of the environment, normally studied by psychologists and other behavioural researchers.

legislation

The legally binding acts and laws passed by government.

leisure product

A term coined by Jansen–Verbeke to denote the nature of tourism supply in cities.

leisure society

A term devised in the 1970s by sociologists to suggest that industrialized society would evolve to a point where individuals worked less and had more leisure time to enjoy.

leisure time

The time left after one’s normal functions (e.g. sleeping, eating, working and routines) have been completed.

lending criteria

A set of conditions that an individual or business must fulfil to be eligible for funding.

licensing

A managed process whereby an organization allows other companies to use its brand, logo or trademark in return for a fee.

lifelong learning

The uptake of periodic training, re-training and learning opportunities during an individual’s career to improve skills and career potential.

limits of acceptable change

A holistic approach to carrying capacity that sets pre-defined limits to the amount of change which is permissible.

liquidity

The ability of a company to pay its debts when they become due.

litigation

Process of pursuing a lawsuit.

load factor

The percentage of seats or capacity occupied by passengers on specific departures, which can be aggregated to produce a running total and average capacity figures.

local authorities

Local government body with elected members and permanently appointed officers.

location

The site or place at which a business operates.

Lonely Planet

long-haul

Long-distance travel, typically involving a flight of over five hours.

Malthus

In 1798, demographer Thomas Malthus published his essay on the Principle of Population, stating that as population grows geometrically, food production grows arithmetically, meaning that, in time, population would outstrip its food supply.

management

A process of getting things done within businesses and organizations which involves four agreed tasks: planning, organizing, leading and controlling people and resources.

Management Information Systems (MIS)

A system within an organisation which allows managers and staff empowered to manage to collect information and data through computerised means which at their simplest level may be data bases that capture all the businesses customer details and their transactions.

manatee

A marine mammal (also known as sea cow) found in marshy, shallow waters of America, Africa and the Caribbean, which is docile and interacts with tourists but is subject to high levels of mortality due to boat strikes.

marine park

A water-based reserve with protective policies for marine life.

marine tourism

Tourism activity that takes places in a water-based environment.

marketing

A process, described by Kotler et al. (2005: 914) as a ‘social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating an exchanging products and value with others’.

marketing campaign

The mix of different marketing elements to promote a product or service to its target audience.

marketing offer

The combination of products, services and experiences to satisfy needs and wants.

marketing planning

A process by which an organization will analyze its resources and marketing environment to identify which direction to take.

marketing strategy

The direction a particular business wishes to pursue in fulfilling its stated marketing objectives.

mass tourism

High volume tourism that appeals to a large market and can saturate a location and its inhabitants.

McDonaldization

A term coined by Ritzer to denote the globalization trend associated with the fast food restaurant chain, which refers to how supply is becoming homogenous at a global scale.

mental map

A map produced by an individual based on their initial response to environmental information signals received through the senses, prior to being constructed by the brain into a cognitive image.

merger

Where two companies or more agree to join another on an equal basis to create a new entity.

methodology

A means by which one approaches scientific enquiry, informed by one’s philosophical bent towards a subject.

ministry

A department within government with responsibility for a specific issue.

MIRAB

Acronym to describe the problems of the social and economic development of tourism on small islands: migration, remittances, aid and bureaucracy.

mission statement

A brief statement to incorporate the purpose and objectives of an organization.

modernity

A concept that describes the condition of being modern, which, in less developed countries and former colonies, developed from the 1950s and focused on the modernization

of societies and economies.

modus operandi

Mode of operation.

monograph

A high-level academic research publication, often published as a hardback book.

monopoly

Where one business or supplier is the sole provider with no effective competition.

mortgage sale

Where a receiver or individual is forced to sell their house or property as an asset that may have been used to secure a loan that can no longer be repaid.

motivation

The basis of human behaviour, studied by psychologists and sociologists, and concerned with the factors that makes people do certain things.

m-tourism

Mobile and wireless-enabled technology that facilitates tourism information provision and bookings.

multi-day discounting

A reduced price if visitors wish to revisit an attraction on subsequent days.

multidisciplinary

The combination of different subject areas in academic areas to explore a common issue, such as tourism.

‘must see’ places

Those attractions in a destination which are high profile and iconic.

nation state

A political and geographical entity to describe the area in which a particular group of people of one or more nationalities live in, often referred to as a country.

national identity

(also see ethnicity) A group of people with citizenship of a particular nation, sharing basic cultural values or a common identity.

national park

A designated area where protection of natural resources is the priority and where recreation and tourism uses are accommodated through sensitive management.

nationality

A legal concept used by the nation-state based on parental status, place of birth and citizenship.

natural disaster

An earthquake, flood, landslip, tsunami, volcanic eruption, hurricane, typhoon or natural phenomenon related to extreme climate or weather event.

natural environment

Places that are predominantly natural in form, such as countryside, mountains, national parks.

neo-colonial

The replacement of former colonial exploitative social and economic relationships with a new order that simply reinforces the former patterns of exploitation between the former colony and colonizer.

net present value method

A financial method used to evaluate an investment, which examines discounted cash flows (the current value of cash inflows and outflows) based on a projected rate of return for each year’s cash flow.

niche market

An identifiable group of consumers with particular characteristics, needs or desires, often targeted by companies seeking to supply a product or service that will appeal to that group, or that will be perceived as unique and different from the competition.

non-government organization (NGO)

National and local groups with interests in a broad number of social, moral, environmental and economic areas, such as charitable bodies.

not for profit

Those organizations, such as voluntary and charitable bodies, which are not in existence primarily to make profit.

NTO

National Tourism Organization, a public or private sector body that seeks to represent the tourism interests of a destination.

OECD

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: a grouping of 30 countries committed to democratic government and a market economy.

Office for National Statistics

The UK government agency responsible for data collection on a wide range of social and economic issues.

oligopoly

A limited number of suppliers who dominate the market.

opportunity costs

The cost of undertaking or investing in one option at the expense of alternatives.

organization

The formal or informal structure of an administration or system, which contains a series of functions and tasks that individuals and groups perform for the system to function.

overtourism

package holiday

The creation of a number of elements of a holiday purchased as a bundle of services, typically transport and accommodation, which are purchased from a tour operator.

paradigm

A set of values, attitudes and concepts that identify a particular approach to the world or way of thinking.

park and ride

A traffic management tool where visitors park in designated areas and use buses or trains to access a destination, avoiding congestion at key pressure points (e.g. city centres and national parks).

payback

The period over which a project or business expects to repay the initial investment, after which the business should enter into profit, and a more simplistic method of assessing investments than discounted cash flow principles.

perceived value

Involves an individual evaluation of quality, price, reputation and emotional responses to a product by a consumer.

perception

An individual’s image and understanding of the environment with which they interact, based on intuition and mental constructs.

perishability

Refers to a product that cannot be stored.

PEST

Political, economic, sociocultural and technological analysis of the external environment in which a business operates.

physical-spatial approach

Recognition of tourism’s ecological basis and the need for geographical planning, epitomized by land use planning.

place

Physical location.

placeless

No fixed geographical point or location.

placemaking

planning

A process to anticipate, regulate and monitor change.

policy

Direction and stated objectives an organization wishes to pursue over a set period of time.

pollution

A deterioration of any part of the environment due to the introduction of chemicals, substances or a process that the environment is unable to absorb without damage.

post-colonial

The period following independence from a colonial power.

post-Communist countries

Those states in Eastern Europe which gained independence from the former USSR after the Berlin Wall was removed in 1989.

post-Fordist

The use of more specialized and flexible forms of production to respond to consumer demand.

post-industrial

A phase in a region’s development where its former economic rationale based on manufacturing has been replaced by an economy based on services, such as finance or tourism.

postmodern

A sociological concept developed to explain changes society from the late twentieth century, which focuses on the shift from manufacturing to service economies and issues such as consumerism and popular culture and emphasizes that there is no overarching theory of how society works, as it varies from place to place.

power relationships

Unequal relationships between people, organizations or countries, where one has a stronger degree of control.

practitioner

Someone who practices their subject or profession rather than being engaged in academic study or research.

predatory tourist-related crime

Opportunist crime perpetuated on visitors who may appear vulnerable, in unfamiliar surroundings and appear different in appearance to residents.

price

The charge for a product, service or commodity.

price elasticity

A ratio to measure the percentage change in the quantity of tourism demanded in relation to the percentage change in the price of a tourism product.

private sector

Business activities which are profit-driven and operate predominantly without public subsidies.

product lifecycle

According to Kotler et al. (2005: 918) this is ‘The course of a product’s sales and profits over its lifetime. It involves five distinct stages: product development, introduction, growth, maturity and decline’ and in tourism terms, an additional stage may be added in relation to destinations-rejuvenation and redevelopment.

product offering

The whole experience available to visitors (including the core, actual and augmented product).

production

The way in which tourism services are produced (i.e. assembled together as packages), or linked through a supply chain.

production chain

The integration of different supply elements into a system to provide a product or service.

productivity

The output of an employee or organization in relation to the cost base of production and other inputs.

profit and loss account

The statement by a limited company in its accounts of the profits and losses it declared in relation to expenses.

promotion

The different activities that communicate the benefits of a service or product to consumers with a view to encouraging purchases.

pro-poor tourism

A movement that aims to utilize tourism activity to reduce poverty in destination areas.

psychological

The characteristics of an individual or group in terms of their behaviour and mental processes.

public sector

The diverse range of government-related and funded bodies that work in the public interest.

public service grant

A government subsidy for operating a public transport service to make it more commercially viable.

pull factor

An external stimulus encouraging an individual to visit an area or place, such as destination marketing.

push factor

An internal stimulus encouraging an individual to go on holiday, such as the need to have a break.

QUANGO

Acronym for a quasi-autonomous non-government department.

racking

How travel agents display the products of certain company’s brochures to consumers.

radiative forcing

The combined effect of CO2 and NOx particles and water vapour, which results from airline pollution in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

A technical term that describes how new technologies associated with identifying objects as an alternative way to using conventional bar codes and does not require the object in question to be in direct contact with a bar code scanner as it uses transmitted radio signals as the means of communication.

receivership

Where a lender who has a charge over a business is defaulted, a receiver or administrator is appointed to realize any assets to repay outstanding debt.

recruitment of staff

A process of identifying the staff an organization needs and attracting them through advertising, word of mouth and personal recommendation, leading to a formal recruitment process according to prevailing laws and regulations (e.g. equal opportunities laws).

re-enactments

Interpretation of historical events through re-creation, such as battles or domestic scenes.

re-engineering

A process to redevelop an organization and to realign it to a new purpose or focus.

regional policy

Government or transnational organization (e.g. EU) policy to a particular geographical region, usually with a view to aiding its economic development.

regional tourism organization

A body that operates below the level of a national tourism organization to serve the needs of its members in promoting tourism in a defined region.

regulation

The way in which governments manage markets and competition with controls and penalties.

rejuvenation

Also used interchangeably with regeneration, it refers to the redevelopment of an ailing area or product by boosting its potential through investment and creating a new image/market.

relationship marketing

According to Kotler et al. (2005: 920) it is ‘The process of creating, maintaining and enhancing strong, value-laden relationships with customers and other stakeholders’.

repositioning

How an organization or business seeks to change its market orientation from, for example, one aiming at a low-spending domestic market to a new position where it appeals to high-spending international visitors. It often involves public sector organizations who seek to change the image and appeal of the destination as part of the repositioning strategy.

research

A process by which one uncovers, discovers and explores ideas, issues or a particular question to find an answer.

resilience

resilience planning

resort

A physical location where a number of tourism-related elements occur to create a cluster of activities, often in attractive locations such as coastal areas but also in mountain, rural, city and other locations.

resort development

The growth of an area through time into a tourism destination.

resort development spectrum

A model developed by Prideaux (2000) to identify five phases of resort growth: local tourism, regional tourism, national tourism, international tourism and decline/stagnation/ rejuvenation.

responsible tourism

Form of tourism which acknowledges that mass tourism has negative impacts for host communities and destinations, and which seeks to generate positive benefits while minimizing negative ones.

retention of staff

In the long term, being able to keep employees through investment in training and valuing the role staff play in the successful operation of the business.

risk to reward ratio

Where the capital required for a venture is assessed in relation to the expected financial gains.

rurality

A condition of the non-urban environment or countryside, often based upon perceptions of what constitutes a rural area and which has been combined into 16 indicators by Cloke (1977).

SAGA

A UK-based tour operator specializing in holidays for the over-50 age group.

SARS

A respiratory virus which spread from China in 2002–2003 by travel.

scenario planning

The process of trying to understand the uncertainty associated with the future. It focuses on three areas of research: what may happen (possible futures), what is the most likely to happen (probable futures) and what we would prefer to happen (preferable futures).

seasonality

The pattern of demand for tourism, conditioned by climate, weather, daylight, price, fashion, tastes and the nature of the origin and destination area.

second home

A dwelling that is owned by an individual but which is not their main residence, normally used for leisure and tourism purposes.

segmentation

Matching a company’s products to specific subdivisions of the market.

self-catering

Non-serviced accommodation.

senior market

The over 50–55 age group, also called the ‘grey’ market.

service debugging

Removing the problems, inconsistencies and potential failure points in a service.

SERVQUAL

An approach to service quality, examining how good service delivery is in relation to consumer expectations and service performance.

sex tourism

Travelling with the express intent of engaging in sexual activity or gratification.

shallow ecology

An ecological philosophy that pays little respect for real environmental values, sometimes referred to as ‘light green’.

shareholder

Someone who owns shares in a limited company or limited partnership.

small–medium enterprise

(SME) A business that may typically have less than 250 employees.

SMART

Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timebound goals.

smokeless industry

A form of economic development that does not require the construction of factories and pollution resulting from industrial production.

social class

Usually taken to mean the grading of individuals on the basis of occupation of the chief income earner in a household (although social class can also refer to more intangible measures, such as education or family background).

social elite

The upper and middle classes in historical terms, or, in modern society, those with the most wealth.

social entrepreneurship

To use an entrepreneurial approach to make a sustained contribution to the social good as well as creating a profit through business activities to reinvest in its business mission to advance the social good agenda.

social media

The generic term to describe the means by which people now share their views, interact and collaborate online including the tools used by businesses to communicate with customers and other people to people communications (e.g. the use of Facebook and Twitter).

social psychology

The study of social influences on human behaviour, namely how people affect other people.

social tourism

Providing holidays for those who would not normally have the opportunity to engage in tourism for economic or accessibility reasons.

sociocultural

The combination of social and cultural elements.

sociology

The study of people in society.

South Pacific

The region of the world within the Pacific Ocean comprising many small islands and containing three cultural groupings: Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.

spa

Historically, a resort at which the visitor ‘took the waters’ for therapeutic purposes, either by bathing or drinking, an activity which can be dated to Greek and Roman times.

space tourism

Travel to outer space, to orbit the Earth and beyond the Earth’s orbit, as well as simulation and cyberspace experiences.

stakeholders

Interest groups, such as businesses, residents and tourists, who are concerned with issues in an area, such as tourism.

start-up business

A new venture created by an entrepreneur or other organization.

strategic alliance

An agreement between companies to undertake an activity on a shared basis.

strategic planning

A process to enable a company or organization to assess how it will manage to adapt to a changing business environment.

strategy

A plan, ploy, tactic or approach to match an organization’s or individual’s capabilities with market opportunities.

stratosphere

A layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, from 7 km to 50 km above the Earth’s surface.

supply

The means by which goods and services are delivered to the consumer.

supply chain

The sequence of suppliers that fit together to deliver supplies to consumers.

sustainability

The goal of achieving a balance between the needs of tourism or economic development with the ability of the resource base to sustain such activities in the long term.

sustainable tourism

An approach to tourism informed by the principles of sustainable development, which aims to safeguard natural resources and respect host communities, while encouraging more sensitive forms of tourism that minimize negative effects and maximize positive ones.

SUSTRANS

The charitable body, short for ‘Sustainable Transport’, which has developed the UK Cycle Path Network.

SWOT

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis of the internal and external environment in which a business operates.

symbiotic relationship

A relationship of mutual benefit.

system

A method of examining how the different components of something fit together and interact.

target audience

The consumer group that a business wishes to reach in its marketing plan.

terminal facility

An airport, railway, ferry or coach/bus interchange.

terrorism

The activities of extreme political groups seeking change through violent means.

TGV

Train de Grand Vitesse, the French high-speed train operated by SNCF.

timeshare

Accommodation where individuals purchase a week or more per year at a holiday property for their lifetime.

toddler tourism

Travel with young children usually of pre-school age.

tour operator

An organization assembling and selling tourism products and services.

Tour Operators Initiative

Industry-led initiative to develop a sustainable approach to tour operation.

tourism comfort indices

A composite measure of mean temperature, maximum temperature, humidity, precipitation, sunshine hours and wind to assess how comfortable different environments are for tourist activity.

Tourism Concern

A non-government organization that works to protect communities affected by tourism, particularly in the less developed world.

Tourism for Tomorrow Awards

Environmental Awards sponsored by British Airways and World Travel and Tourism Council.

tourism master plan

A national or subnational plan for tourism, which includes an assessment of demand, supply, forecasts, strategic issues and implementation measures.

tourism multiplier

A technique to estimate the impact of tourism on an economy, using a ratio to indicate the magnitude of the effect.

tourism planning

Process to determine future direction and actions for an area, region or country to achieve specified goals.

Tourism Satellite Account (TSA)

An economic tool used to measure the inputs and outputs in the tourism system of one country.

tourism system

A conceptual framework used to examine how tourism operates, focusing on the interaction of tourism components (i.e. attractions, accommodation, transport, destinations and tourists).

tourist expenditure

The amount of money a tourist spends during a visit.

tourist experience

The overall impression, understanding, rating and meaning a visitor attaches to their encounter with a specific place, event, holiday or activity.

tourist gaze

A term used by the sociologist John Urry (1990) to explain the way in which a visitor observes or interacts with a tourist destination.

tourist motivation

The range of motives and factors that encourage tourist travel.

tourist night

A statistical measure of how long a tourist stays in a commercial form of accommodation.

tourist receipts

The amount of money received from tourist spending.

tourist resource

A natural or built environment utilized for tourism purposes.

tourist role

A means by which the motivation for travel can be grouped into different categories to distinguish the psychological profile of the tourist.

tourist safety

The precautions necessary to minimize tourist risk behaviour.

tourist statistics

Measures of tourism normally expressed as the volume, value and type of tourism, which is expressed in a tabular format.

tourist well-being

The overall health and safety of a visitor, including positive and negative elements of their interaction with the destination environment.

tourist–host encounter

Instances where tourists and residents of a destination area come into contact.

trampling

The cumulative effect of human feet on the paths and areas they visit.

trans-European network

(TEN) A pan-European series of rail infrastructure projects to improve rail links and interoperability across European border areas, designed to improve the flow of people and goods.

transnational hotel chain

A company that operates hotels in more than one country, with an international presence and defined brand.

travel agent

An intermediary who acts as a broker between the tour operator and consumer.

travel career ladder

The life history of a traveller expressed chronologically to show the development of a series of travel experiences.

travel propensity

The likelihood of a group of people/individual wishing to travel.

tsunami

An earthquake at sea which causes a tidal wave, as observed in Asia.

turnaround of aircraft

The time involved when an aircraft lands, is cleaned, refuelled and ready for another flight, which for low-cost airlines is targeted at 26 minutes.

u-commerce

Interconnected technologies to communicate with tourists that are ubiquitous, universal, unique and working in unison.

under utilization

A failure to fully use the capacity available.

undifferentiated product

One which ignores market differences and aims at the entire market with one offer.

urban tourism

Tourism destined for, and undertaken in towns, cities and urban resort areas.

urbanization

The process of people moving to, and living in towns and cities.

User Generated Content (UGC)

This describes the growth in people posting different forms of content online, typically ranging from simple question and answers to blogs, podcasts and the use of other technology to create material to share with others through mobile phones and devices which characterises the growth of social media and its expansion driven by UGC.

value chains

The description of the process which firms use to bring a product, service or good from its raw state (or to describe how they assemble the ingredients or elements in an experience) to market (i.e. to the point a consumer can purchase and enjoy it). It describes how they create the final finished outcome. In tourism, this outcome is normally consumed as an experience (i.e. the overall holiday) or specific elements such as a specific service (e.g. the trip on an aircraft). In the case of tour operating, this may be divided across many connected, integrated or separate companies that are managed to provide the final outcome for the tourist. When companies are operating globally, then this will typically be a global value chain.

value of tourism

The financial worth of tourism, referring to the amount of money tourism generates for a locality or country in economic terms.

venture capital

Money invested in a project or business by a group of financiers who specialize in investing in high-risk ventures in return for shares in the company.

vernacular building

A building constructed in a regional or local style.

victimization

The feeling of becoming a victim of a crime or negative event.

Victorian

The period 1837–1901, associated with the reign of Queen Victoria.

virtual reality

Simulation of reality to allow a consumer to view or experience something that cannot be easily accessed (e.g. an historical event, a distant location, a protected resource or a story), using different technologies.

visa

A legal document which allows the bearer permission to visit a country, issued by the destination country and valid for a certain period of time in line with the stated restrictions.

visiting friends and relatives

(VFR) A form of tourism that involves the visitor staying in the home of a friend or relative.

visitor attraction

A phenomenon or feature, built or natural, which is open to the public for payment or free of charge and appeals to tourists and day visitors.

visitor behaviour

The way in which a visitor responds to the environment they visit, including their preferences, perception and geographical activity patterns.

visitor experience

See tourist experience.

visitor management

Techniques to control, direct and influence visitor behaviour and activity.

visitor payback

Visitor donations or voluntary levies imposed on tourist products and services, used to fund conservation initiatives in visitor destinations.

visitor satisfaction

Where a visitor’s expectations have been met.

volume of tourism

The actual numbers of people travelling as tourists.

Web 2.0

A term to describe the shift from the early static web page technology of the internet to a new stage where technologies allow people to communicate and collaborate so it facilitates the creation of User Generated Content and development of online communities. The characteristics of the online communities are the use of new online networking tools such as blogs, technology to allow sharing of photographs and videos and other relevant information.

Welcome Host

UK scheme to train frontline staff in customer service skills to meet and greet visitors.

wildlife-based tourism

Visits which are associated with observing wildlife in its natural habitat.

wireless networks

A technical term to describe a means of connecting electronic equipment via networks that do not need cabling that can encompass Bluetooth typically used with mobile phones through to running computer networks and devices through local area networks without cables (i.e. WiFi). In the case of fixed computers and devices, WiFi allows communication without the conventional cabling using microwave or modularised laser light beam signals.

World Commission on Environment and Development

World Tourism Organization

A global organization based in Madrid, funded by the United Nations to collate tourism statistics and to provide policy advice and planning guidance to member countries and organizations.

World Tourism Organization code of ethics

World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC)

An organization representing around 100 of the world’s leading tourism companies.

World Wide Web

A virtual environment which allows different forms of text, graphics and other file formats to be accessed.

wow factor

A feature or element of an attraction that leaves the visitor impressed or overawed, creating a favourable and memorable impression.

yield management

Revenue management method to improve the profitability of a specific form of capacity or supply (i.e. aircraft or railway seats and hotel rooms).

Yugoslavia

The country created in 1945 in Eastern Europe, which subsequently split to form Bosnia, Croatia, Slovenia, Yugoslavia and Macedonia in 1992.