Summary
Chapter 11 examines the first years of American involvement in the Second World War, 1941 to 1943. By the end of 1941, bloody conflicts had engulfed Europe for more than two years and East Asia for a decade. The Axis powers – Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Militarist Japan – expanded to dominate vast swaths of territory on three continents. It looked like they would continue to achieve victory after victory. Against them stood a hobbled British Empire, a devastated Soviet Union, and a divided China. Since the outbreak of war in 1939, the United States of America gradually provided food, vehicles, weapons, and financial support to these nations fighting the Axis powers, but most Americans remained unwilling to enter the conflict. Isolationist tendencies still held sway over public opinion even in late 1941.
That the United States eventually entered the Second World War should not have surprised any Americans. Tensions between Japan and the United States over commercial trade, immigration policy, natural resources, and strategic influenced had simmered since 1898. In Europe, fears of Germany’s seeming insatiable thirst for power and territory increasingly threatened American and Allied interests in the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the specific target of Pearl Harbor caught the Americans off guard on December 7, 1941.
The story of the United States in the Second World War is one of a suddenly awakened giant that halted the Axis expansion before throwing the enemy back on their heels. After an inauspicious start, decisive American victories in the Pacific came at Midway in June 1942 and on Guadalcanal by February 1943. In Europe, however, Americans made slow progress in North Africa in 1942 and then on Sicily and Italy in 1943. Although each of these campaigns almost resulted in disaster, the United States helped shift momentum toward the Allies.
In this chapter, students will learn about how the “Day of Infamy” happened. Emphasis will be placed on the Battles at Midway and Guadalcanal as twin turning points in the Pacific War in 1942. The European Theater is only considered in this chapter and students will learn about how the United States maintained a logistical lifeline to Europe by winning the Battle of the Atlantic. Key to that story is the successes and shortcomings of harnessing resources on the American home front to support a global war effort. Finally, this chapter discusses the American operational learning curve that led to victories in North Africa in 1942 and on Sicily and Italy in 1943-1944.
Glossary
“4-F” Classification- A World War II draft registration classification. Those deemed 4-F were disqualified from the draft if they did not meet physical, emotion, intellectual, or moral standards.
Afrika Korps- Most famously led by German General Erwin Rommel, German desert forces that operated in North Africa during World War II. Surrendered on May 13, 1943 to Allied forces after the American victory at El Guettar stranded the Afrika Korps near Tunis.
Anzio, amphibious landing- The January 22, 1944 Allied landing during the Italian Campaign of World War II in a bid to breach the Gustav Line and take Rome. Poor planning saw the Allies fortify the beachhead against a German counterattack rather than push inland. The time lapse allowed German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring to reinforce Anzio, bottling up the Allies in a 20 mile wide by 15 mile deep beachhead for months.
Atlantic, Battle of the- From September 1939 through 1945, the Germans attempted to disrupt the transport of war materials from the United States across the Atlantic to the European theater. At its height in 1942, German U-boats sunk 400 American ships, 2 million tons of shipping, and claimed the 8,400 merchant seaman lives. By 1943 losses gradually lessened as prodigious American construction of Liberty Ships and more aggressive anti-U-boat activities shifted the battle’s momentum.
Arizona, USS- An American battleship, part of the U.S. Fleet in the Pacific Ocean, sunk on December 7, 1941 during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The fatal Japanese bomb detonated one of the ship’s ammunition magazines, causing catastrophic secondary explosions. 1,177 of the 1,400 men aboard died, almost half of all American deaths during the attack.
AVALANCHE, Operation- The main Allied operation of the initial invasion of Italy during World War II, beginning near Salerno on September 9, 1943. Anglo-American forces landed but met a determined German defense. Logistical problems left the Allied line weak and geographical difficulties hampered movement. After the Americans defeated a September 16 German counterattack, Allied units began to move inland, moving northwest up the Italian boot.
“Bataan Death March”- The forced march in early 1942 of the more than 75,000 American and Filipino combatants who surrendered the Philippines to the Japanese after six months of resistance. Japanese guards brutally killed soldiers who fell out of the forced six day forced march of seventy miles to a prisoner of war camp. Merciless tropical heat and ahe malnourished state of the exhausted soldiers claimed at least 18,000 lives, further inspiring racially charged hatred that the Americans felt toward the Japanese.
Omar N. Bradley- (1893-1981), U.S. Army general officer during World War II in North Africa and Europe, known for his unpretentious bearing and highly popular status among soldiers. The last Army officer to hold the rank of five star general.
Mark W. Clark- (1896-1984), U.S. Army general officer, commander of the U.S. 5th Army that invaded Italy during Operation Avalanche. His leadership capabilities and planning during World War II remain controversial.
Coral Sea, Battle of May 4-8, 1942. The first naval battle fought completely over the horizon solely by aircraft from the USS Lexington and Yorktown that sank a Japanese light carrier and crippled two heavy carriers at the cost of sinking the Lexington and badly damaging the Yorktown. A tactical victory for the Japanese, Coral Sea constituted an American victory at the strategic level, though, as it kept Port Moresby safe and knocked important Japanese carriers out of crucial combat operations at Midway the next month.
“Doolittle Raid”- (1890-1969), An April 18, 1942 bombing raid on Tokyo and other Japanese cities by American B-25 medium bombers. Led by Lieutenant Colonel James H. “Jimmy” Doolittle of the U.S. Army Air Corps, the mission was meant to buoy sagging American morale. Transported by aircraft carrier, the sixteen bombers did little physical damage but struck a blow to Japan’s sense of security of their home islands.
“Double V”- World War II campaign to achieve victory over racism abroad and racism in the United States.
Dwight D. Eisenhower- (1890-1969), U.S. Army general officer during World War II and acting supreme commander of Allied forces. Elected president in 1953, Eisenhower served two terms, ending in 1961, warning in his farewell address about the perils of the military-industrial complex.
El Guettar, Battle of- A battle from March 23 to April 7, 1943 in southern Tunisia between Italian and German units and the U.S. Army II Corps led by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, Jr. The forced withdrawal of Axis forces after the battle toward Tunis spelled the end of German and Italian presence in North Africa, surrendering fully on May 13, 1943 and effectively ending the Afrika Corps.
Executive Order 9066- The February 19, 1942 decree from U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt mandating that Japanese-Americans in the western United States relocate to internment camps due to popular fear of sabotage or subversion. Lacking due process of law, the forced relocation violated the constitutional rights of the majority of those detained who could claim American citizenship.
Frank Jack Fletcher- (1885-1973), U.S. Navy admiral, in command of Task Force 17 during the Battle of Coral Sea and overall commander during Battle of Midway. A surface warfare admiral by training, Fletcher understood the importance of air power to modern naval war and used his aircraft to great effect during both battles.
442nd Regimental Combat Team- Japanese-American U.S. Army unit during World War II. In a desire to prove their loyalty to the United States, some 20,000 Japanese-Americans left the camps to join the military during the war. The 442nd became the most highly decorated infantry regiment in Army history.
Grand Alliance- The alliance of the United States, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union during World War II. A marriage of convenience, the Grand Alliance would tear apart over a myriad of issues at the end of World War II, turning the erstwhile allies into ideologies enemies during the Cold War.
Guadalcanal, Naval Battle of- The naval component of the larger Guadalcanal Offensive, it began on November 13, 1942 when two quick clashes occurred near Savo Island between American ships and Japanese vessels attempting to resupply troops on the island of Guadalcanal. Due to the large number of ships sunk by both sides, the area off Guadalcanal was dubbed “Ironbottom Sound.”
Gustav Line- The World War II German defensive network that ran across the Italian peninsula, from the western coast of Italy along the Garigliano and Rapido Rivers to the Apennine Mountains in central Italy.
William F. Halsey- (1882-1959), Nicknamed “Bull,” U.S. Navy vice admiral who commanded the American fleet that launched B-25 medium bombers during the Doolittle Raid on April 18, 1942.
Henderson Field- A Japanese-constructed airfield on the island of Guadalcanal, named after a Marine pilot killed during the Battle of Midway.
HUSKY, Operation- The successful Allied invasion of Sicily during World War II, and the first major foray into an Axis power’s sovereign territory. Lasting from July 10 to August 17, 1943, American casualties totaled 2,900 killed, 6,400 wounded, and 600 captured, while the British suffered 12,600 casualties overall. The Axis lost 28,000 Germans and 145,000 Italians.
Joint Chiefs of Staff- Interservice advisory body staffed by the highest-ranking officer of each branch of the military. The JCS advises the President, the Secretary of Defense, the National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council on military matters, but does not create policy. It was born after the ACADIA conference in 1942, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt created an American advisory body. It was not an official body until the National Security Act of 1947.
Kasserine Pass, Battle of- American defeat during World War II near Tunisia’s western border with Algeria, taking place from February 19-25, 1943. The battle revealed systemic problems for the Americans, including an inability of green troops to prepare for German armor, leadership that was situated too far behind the front lines, a lack of unity of command, and ineffectual use of combined arms.
Albert Kesselring- (1885-1960), German Luftwaffe Field Marshal during World War II, commander in chief of all German forces in North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. His strategy of delay in the face of Allied pressure throughout the campaigns proved costly for American and British forces. Superior planning, shrewd tactics, and a clearly defined chain of command under Kesselring helped make German evacuations during these operations successful.
Husband E. Kimmel- (1882-1968), U.S. Navy admiral, commander in chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet at the time of the December 7, 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. A rising star in the navy and well respected, the attack effectively ended his career, as he was seen as responsible for lack of preparation and errors of judgment. Kimmel lost his command in mid-December under charges of dereliction of duty, causing him to retire in March 1942.
Ernest J. King- (1878-1956), U.S. Navy admiral during World War II, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Fleet and chief of naval operations, considered by many to be the chief architect of American victory in the Pacific and a master strategist. His dual-hatted position made him one of most powerful admirals in Navy history since he commanded American fleets at sea and controlled the Navy’s bureaucracy on land.
Douglas MacArthur- (1880-1964), Returning to active duty in March 1941 as a lieutenant general and becoming commander of U.S. forces in the Far East, MacArthur was in charge of the defense of the Philippines when the Japanese invaded on December 22, 1941. Given ample warning, MacArthur did not give clear orders to prepare for an imminent attack, resulting in no effective American defense. In March 1942 during desperate fighting he left the Philippines altogether, leaving the American and Filipino forces to their fate.
George C. Marshall- (1880-1959), U.S. Army officer, chief of the War Plans Division in 1938 and promoted to brigadier general and chief of staff one year later. In that position Marshall made sweeping changes, including increasing the Army’s size, organizationally restructuring it, and modernizing the service. Marshall created a more streamlined and efficient formulation of strategic planning and policy, important contributions to Allied victory during World War II.
Midway, Battle of- A World War II naval battle between the U.S. and Imperial Japanese navies from 4 to 7 June 1942. Three aircraft carriers, the USS Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown in two separate task forces interdicted Japanese forces about 150 miles northeast of Midway. The most decisive naval battle of WWII, the Americans sunk three Japanese carriers and forced another to be scuttled – losses from which the Japanese navy never recovered – at the cost of the Americans losing the Yorktown.
Bernard Law Montgomery- (1887-1976), The most well-known British general officer during World War II, the Field Marshal became notable initially for his victory against the Germans in North Africa at the Battle of El Alamein in November 1942. Master of the set-piece battle, Montgomery earned the reputation of stubbornly refusing to act without fastidious planning and preparation in advance. During Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of France in June 1944, he acted as the commander of Allied ground forces on the continent.
Monte Cassino, Battles of- Four World War II battles lasting from 17 January until 18 May 1944; part of the Italian Campaign.
Chester W. Nimitz- (1885-1966), U.S. Navy admiral, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet after Pearl Harbor and for the remainder of World War II. Aggressively-minded, he was responsible for acting on intelligence provided by the ULTRA program that broke the Japanese code, and using it to plan and carry out the Battle of Midway. From there Nimitz led the amphibious landings against Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and other island campaigns, as well as the submarine operations that destroyed the Japanese merchant marine.
Chuichi Nagumo- (1887-1944), Japanese naval vice-admiral, the officer in charge of the Japanese forces that attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 7 December 1941. His decision not to launch a third attack on the American base meant that the U.S. Navy was still able to operate in the Pacific. He was conclusively defeated as commander of the Japanese navy forces at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 and eventually relieved of command in 1943. Sent to defend Saipan, he committed suicide in July 1944 before the American invasion.
George S. Patton, Jr.- (1885-1945), A U.S. Army general officer, well known for his brash demeanor and flamboyant nature. He took command of the American II Corps in March 1943 after the debacle at Kasserine Pass. As punishment for slapping a soldier reportedly suffering from PTSD, Patton was relieved and sent to England to deceive the Germans as to the where and how the Allies would invade France. Leading the Third U.S. Army, he executed a series of impressive armored drives, helping to relieve Bastogne and cross into Germany.
Rapido River crossing- A World War II river crossing by the 36th Infantry Division and 19th Engineer Regiment of the U.S. Army north of Cassino, Italy in an attempt to break through the German Gustav Line. Lasting from 20-22 January 1944, from the start the operation went poorly. The Americans suffered severe casualties Inexperienced infantryman and ill-equipped engineers did not have enough, or the right kind of, boats to cross the deep and swift Rapido.
Franklin D. Roosevelt- As U.S. president from 1933 to 1945, FDR capably balanced American neutrality and assistance to friendly European powers until the nation declared war against the Axis Powers following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Before Roosevelt could see through the end of the war and his ambitious post-war designs, he died on April 12, 1945 after suffering a substantial stroke.
Erwin Rommel- A German general officer during World War II, best known for his highly mobile desert armor campaigns in North Africa leading the Afrika Korps, where he earned the moniker “Desert Fox” and won a tactical victory against the untested Americans at Kasserine Pass in February 1943. Rommel was later ordered to improve the French coastal defenses and led all German forces in France during Operation Overlord. On 14 October 1944 he committed suicide after being implicated in a plot to kill Adolf Hitler.
SBD “Dauntless” dive bomber- As a dive bomber in World War Ii – the method of approaching a target from a high altitude, diving at a moderately steep angle to increase accuracy and decrease exposure – the U.S Navy launched the Dauntless primarily from the decks of aircraft carriers, and used the aircraft to great effect in the Pacific Theater, relying upon them as the primary dive bomber for most of the war against Japanese Navy ships.
Walter C. Short- (1880-1949), U.S. Army lieutenant general, in charge of the defense of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii at the time of the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941. Like Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, Short was recalled to Washington D.C., relieved of command, and found guilty of dereliction of duty.
TORCH, Operation- The American invasion of North Africa, 8-16 November 1942, the first major American military effort against German and Italian forces. The invasion itself was a diplomatic and practical consideration, as Joseph Stalin demanded his Allied open a second front to alleviate pressure on the Soviet Union in the East.
Troina, Battle of- A battle during the Allied invasion of Sicily, or Operation Husky, during World War II. Three weeks after the Allies landed, German and Italian forces had formed a defensive line from the foot of Mount Etna to the town of Troina and across the Caronie Mountains. American units attacked Troina from 31 July to 6 August 1943. After suffering heavy losses, the Americans took the high ground and their accurate artillery fire forced the Axis units to withdraw.
Tuskegee Airmen- Most famous of the 100,000 black Americans who served in combat units during World War II. Becoming the 332nd Fighter Group after flight training at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, elements deployed to North Africa and Sicily in 1942 and 1943. Moving to southern Italy in 1944 they compiled their most important figures while flying fighter protection for U.S. bombing raids: 400 enemy aircraft damaged or destroyed on 15,500 sorties during 311 missions.
Two-Pronged Strategy (Pacific)- The Pacific Theater strategy of the United States during World War II. Army General Douglas MacArthur commanded the Southwest Pacific Theater, while Navy Admiral Chester Nimitz commanded the Central Pacific Theater.
Type 92 “Long Lance” torpedo- Japanese torpedoes used during the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 7 December 1941. Specially designed with wooden fins that allowed them to run near the water’s surface rather than impact the harbor’s shallow bottom, along with armor-piercing bombs they proved to be devastating against the anchored American ships.
Alexander A. Vandegrift- (1887-1973), 1st Marine Division commander during the World War II Guadalcanal Campaign 7 August 1942 to 9 February 1943.
Wake Island- U.S. military base, attacked by the Japanese on December 7, 1941, the same day as Pearl Harbor. 2,000 miles west of Hawaii, the isolated U.S. Marines and civilian contractors who manned the island held out against repeated Japanese aerial and naval attacks, providing a much-needed morale boost for the country. The defenders held out until 23 December when they surrendered in the face of a more determined Japanese attack, spending the duration of the war as prisoners of war.
WATCHTOWER, Operation- Codename for the World War II Guadalcanal Campaign, lasting from August 7, 1942 to February 9, 1943 it was the first real test of American land strength in Pacific. The Japanese construction of an airfield on Guadalcanal in the Solomons, they could interdict American supply routes to Australia or possibly target U.S. naval forces in the southwest Pacific. Watchtower not only looked to quell that threat, but also to isolate and capture Rabaul.
Wolfpack- A German U-boat tactic used during World War II, notably during the Battle of the Atlantic. The method utilized as many as twenty U-boats (German submarines) forming a line that straddled expected Allied sea routes.
Isoroku Yamamoto- (1884-1943), Japanese naval officer during World War II, the architect of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and commander of Japanese naval forces in the war against the Americans. On 18 April 1943 while flying to the northern Solomons to inspect bases, American fighters intercepted and shot down his aircraft after encryption of Japanese messages revealed his itinerary.
Yorktown, USS- A U.S. Navy aircraft carrier during World War II used by Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher as the flagship for Task Force 17. Taking part in the Battle of Coral Sea from 4-8 May 1942, the Yorktown suffered that would take an estimated three months to repair. She was rushed back after 2 days. While being towed back to Pearl Harbor for more repairs after sustaining extensive damage during the Battle of Midway, a Japanese submarine sunk the Yorktown on 7 June 1942.
Flashcards
Annotated Bibliography
Adams, Michael C. C. The Best War Ever: America and World War II. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
This short survey of the United States in World War II takes a revisionist turn in exposing some of the hypocrisies and tragedies of the American war effort. Although sometimes called America’s “good war,” Adams demonstrates that not all decisions, activities, or operations in this conflict were “good” for all Americans. There were examples of discrimination like the Japanese American internments and of wonton destruction like the firebombing of Japanese cities.
Andrews, Lena S. Valient Women: The Extraordinary American Servicewomen Who Helped Win World War II. Boston: Mariner Books, 2023.
This book examines the roles played by some 350,000 American women who serving in uniform during World War II. They were codebreakers, gunnery instructors, metalsmiths, chemists, translators, parachute riggers, truck drivers, and hundreds of other occupations, many of which were male-typed in the pre-war U.S. military. Andrews highlights not only the breadth of roles played by American women, but also their deployments across the globe.
Atkinson, Rick. The Liberation Trilogy. 3 vols.New York: Holt, 2002-2013
This so-called “Liberation Trilogy” – An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943, The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943-1944, and The Guns at Last Light: The War in Europe, 1944-1945 – took more than 15 years for Atkinson to research and write. Although a journalist by trade and training, the author conducts archival research that matches the more thorough historians. He blends stories of American combatants from the lowliest private to the highest ranking general into a coherent whole. There are not new interpretations here, but the writing is vivid, and the resiliency of the American military is apparent.
Burrell, Robert S. The Ghosts of Iwo Jima. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006.
In this controversial book, Burrell challenges the mythical status of the battle for Iwo Jima in Marine Corps lore and legend. Burrell acknowledges the extraordinary service and sacrifices of the 70,000 Marines fighting on the island. Yet, he questioned the strategic necessities of assaulting an island that could offer no offensive threat to American forces, and of losing 24,000 Marine and Navy personnel to save a similar number of U.S. Army Air Force crews in route from bombing Japan back to the Marianas.
Bourque, Stephen Alan. Beyond the Beach: The Allied War Against France. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2018.
In this controversial book, Bourque challenged the success and the efficacy of the Allied bombing campaign in Normandy province in France in the months and weeks leading up to the D-Day invasion on June 6, 1944. The Allied targets included Germany bases, railroads, ports, bridges, and railroad marshalling years, all of which needed to be destroyed to cripple German logistics and reinforcement efforts after June 6. Bourque asserts the senior Allied leaders – including Eisenhower – willingly sacrificed more than 60,000 lives of French civilians caught in the bombings.
Crane, Conrad C. American Airpower Strategy in World War II: Bombs, Cities, Civilians, and Oil. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016.
Crane a detailed his 1993 study of U.S. bombing doctrine and practice in the Second World War. He argues that, although notable exceptions like the firebombing of Dresden did occur, the U.S. Army Air Force stayed true to using precision bombing to hit strategic target in Europe, if not in Japan where racism and personality combined to make the campaign much more brutal.
Craven Wesley F., and James L. Cate. The Army Air Forces in World War II. 7 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948-1958.
This official history of the U.S. Army Air Firce during World War II is grounded in primary sources. These books represent the starting points for any study of this branch.
Dean, Peter J. MacArthur’s Coalition: U.S. and Australian Military Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area, 1942-1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2018.
Like Eisenhower in Europe, General Douglas MacArthur needed to work with Allies in the Southwest Pacific. Dean’s seminal book examines MacArthur’s command relationship, albeit lopsided toward the United States, with the Australians. Even with MacArthur’s idiosyncratic personality, the Australians and American found ways to coordinate efforts and achieve victory against the Japanese.
D’este, Carlos. Patton: A Genius for War. New York: HarperCollins, 1995.
This is the most balanced biography of the controversial general. D’este credits Patton with some great achievements, but he also does not shy away from pointed criticisms.
Dower, John W. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1986.
Although more than three decades old, Dower’s book remains the seminal study of both Japanese and American racisms during World War II. Both sides dehumanized and degraded their opponents, making killing and committing atrocities easier.
Ellman, James. MacArthur Reconsidered: General Douglas MacArthur as Wartime Commander. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2023.
Frank, Richard B. Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle. New York: Random House, 1990.
Frank’s operational study of Guadalcanal remains the single best book on the subject. He makes use of extensive archival sources to show the amphibious, air, sea, and land components of the six-month campaign for this island in the southwest Pacific. The American victory inaugurated the massive offensives against Japan that would follow, and it revealed the severe shortcomings of the Japanese logistical system.
Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972.
The start of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union is often marked in the late 1940. Gaddis, however, disagrees. He finds the beginning so the Cold War in the early 1940s as the United States drew closer entering World War II. In those war years, seeds of mutual distrust and ideological differences were sown even as the Grand Alliance of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom fought the Axis powers.
Giangreco, D.M. Truman and the Bomb: The Untold Story. Lincoln, NE: Potomac Book, 2023.
The author sets out the dispel several myths about President Harry S. Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs in August 1945. Among these were Truman’s lack of knowledge about the bombs before becoming president in April 1945, the high casualty rates used to justify the bombings during the post-war era, and Truman’s desire to use the bombs to keep the Soviet Union out of East Asia. Giangreco uses previously unknown materials and dissects the personalities of Truman and others to set forth facts that make the myths into fallacies.
Hantzis, Steven James. Rails of War: Supplying the Americans and their Allies in China-Burma-India. Lincoln, NE: Potomac Books, 2017.
The CBI Theater is rarely covered in the historical survey of the World War II, and analyses of logistics in that theater is even more rare. This book tries to reverse these trends. The author highlights the contributions of the 721st Railway Operating Battalion that included constructing and maintaining some 7,000 miles of railroad track in the CBI in the most inhospitable of environments. The author argues that the Allies could not have been successful in fighting the Japanese without the 721st’s efforts.
Heinrichs, Waldo, and Marc Gallicchio. Implacable Foes: War in the Pacific, 1944-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
Heinrichs and Gallicchio concentrate on the last 18 months of the Pacific War, starting the American island-hopping and leapfrogging campaigns in the Southwest and Central Pacific in 1944 to the dropping the atomic bombs in August 1945. By 1944, the outcome of the war was not in doubt. The Japanese were slowly being squeezed and defeated. Yet, the Americans still needed to achieve complete victory. The co-authors dissect the often contentious high-level strategic and diplomatic decisions of military and political leaders that needed to look for victory in the war and victory in the peace that would follow.
Hinnershitz, Stephanie D. Japanese American Incarceration: The Camps and Coerced Labor during World War II. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021.
This book is a recent examination of the internment in 1942 of Japanese and Japanese Americans living on the West Coast of the United States. President Franklin Roosevelt’s Executive Order 9066 called for those Japanese and Japanese American to be expelled from military zones and sent to internship camps (more like prisons). There they worked as forced laborers by design of the federal government.
Hone, Trent. Mastering the Art of Command: Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and Victory in the Pacific. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2022.
This book focuses on Admiral Chester Nimitz’s leadership during the Pacific War. The author employs management theories to explain how and why Nimitz was so effective in planning strategies, restructuring organizations, and managing personalities. Hone asserts that Nimitz’s habits of mind should be studied and emulated in the 21st century.
James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur, 1941-1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975.
In what is the best and more balanced biography of the controversial figure, James separates the man, myth, and history of Douglas MacArthur’s wartime exploits. He follows the general from the Philippines through the New Guinea campaign and on the Philippines. This is no hagiography, however, as James deals with MacArthur shortcomings.
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
This Pulitzer Prize-winning study provides one of the best single-volume overviews of the Great Depression and the Second World War. Although a trained social and cultural historian and clearly at home when writing about the 1930s, Kennedy took the time to absorb the military aspect of the war years to include strategy, operations, tactics, and logistics. His prose is also peerless in its eloquence and elegance.
Koistinen, Paul A.C. Arsenal of World War II: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1940-1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.
In this fourth of a multi-volume study of the American military-political economy in peace and war, Koistinen analyzes the greatest conflict in human history. He demonstrates how the mobilization of the American industry and economy played a critical role in the Allied victory. The author also deals with the controls by federal agencies over the war effort and the creation of a military-industrial complex.
Lovelace, Alexander G. The Media Offensive: How the Press and Public Opinion Shaped Allied Strategy during World War II. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2022.
This book examines the critical roles of the American media in the Second World War. Not only did media help infuse the American people with nationalistic fervor, but media also swayed strategic decision by senior leaders. General Douglas MacArthur escape from the Philippines in 1942 helped divide future operations in the Pacific into two theaters, one for the U.S. Navy and one of MacArthur and the Army. General George Patton drew criticism in the press because he slapped some supposed cowards in Sicily in 1943. General Mark Clark’s desire for good publicity, rather than operational opportunity, drove his decision to capture Rome in 1944.
Lyons, Michael J., and David J. Ulbrich. World War II: A Global History, 6th ed. New York: Routledge, 2021.
This survey of World War II sets out to examine the conflict in a more balanced way than many other histories of the conflict. The co-authors include chronological chapters on the European, Pacific, and China-Burma Indian Theaters of Operations, and they also include thematic chapters on comparative home fronts, innovative military technologies, and brutal totalitarian regimes.
McManus, John C. Fire and Fortitude: The US Army in the Pacific War, 1941-1943. New York: Dutton Caliber, 2019.
In the first volume of his trilogy on the U.S. Army in the Pacific, McManus traces the evolution of the Army from an undertrained, ill-equipped, tiny force in 1941 into a capable offensive force in 1943. Robert Eichelberger emerges as one of the key American leaders and outstanding contributors to Army operations. McManus highlights the essential contributions of the U.S. Army in the Pacific Theater where the Marine Corps and the Navy receive most attention and credit.
McManus, John C. Island Infernos: The US Army’s Pacific Odyssey, 1944. New York: Dutton Caliber, 2021.
In the second volume of his trilogy on the U.S. Army in the Pacific, McManus turns to the Army’s operations in Burma, on New Guinea, in the Philippines and in the Aleutian Islands. He also examines the logistical challenges of moving men and supplies across the frigid waters of the northern Pacific and through the jungles of New Guinea, the Philippines, and Burma. McManus strikes a balance between the perspectives of the grunts and the senior leaders.
McManus, John C. To the End of the Earth: The US Army and the Downfall of Japan, 1945. New York: Dutton Caliber, 2023.
In the third volume of his trilogy on the U.S. Army in the Pacific, McManus takes readers from MacArthur’s triumphant liberation of the Philippines to the end of the war in September 1945. The Americans were clearly going to win the war, but it remained unclear if a bloody invasion of the Japanese home islands would be necessary to secure victory. McManus does not shy away from criticisms of MacArthur.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. 15 vols.Boston: Little, Brown, 1947-62.
This 15-volume history of the U.S. Navy stands as the semi-official history for the Second World War. It covers in detail every theater and operation in the maritime war effort. Morison has come under criticism for his partisan bias favoring the Navy and certain figures in high command.
Ossad, Steven L. Omar Nelson Bradley: America’s GI General, 1893-1981. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2017.
In this important biography of the well-known Omar Bradley, Ossad covers all phases of Bradley’s life beginning with his childhood, then turning to his military education and wartime exploits, and closing with his post-war activities. The Bradley portrayed by Ossad is not a stick figure, but rather a military leader with skills in strategy, operations, and organization.
Overy, Richard. Blood and Ruins: The Last Imperial War, 1931-1945. New York: Viking, 2021.
This major work represented a culmination of Overy’s decades of study of the Second World War. Overy portrays this conflict as the end of more than a century of European imperialism and as the beginning of the new post-war world order. He demonstrates command of the histories of all the combatant nations and biographies of their leaders. This book also points out the cost of the war to include war crimes and atrocities committed by all sides.
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb: 25th Anniversary Edition. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012.
Originally published in 1987, this classic study of the research and development of the atomic bombs has stood the test of time. Rhodes ably blends the science and the politics behind the atomic bombs with a wide range of personalities into a seamless story. Readers will come away from this book understanding how the atomic bombs were developed and why they needed to be developed. Yes, readers will not find a triumphalist process because the atomic bombs led the way to new post-war conflict – the Cold War.
Symonds, Craig L. Nimitz at War: Command Leadership from Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.
Symonds track Chester Nimitz’s transformation form a naval administrator to the command-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet in a matter of weeks in November and December 1941. In this latter role, Nimitz took a devasted U.S. Pacific Fleet and molded into a superior fighting force capable of projecting American naval, air, and amphibious power across thousands of miles of open water. Nimitz exhibit strong leadership traits despite challenges of other American senior leaders like General Douglas MacArthur, let alone the formidable Japanese Navy.
U.S. Army Center of Military History. The U.S. Army in World War II. 78 vols. Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, 1947-92.
This truly monumental official history of the U.S. Army includes 78 volumes written over several decades. The research is grounded in primary sources, and the analysis can be biting in its criticism of mistakes and shortcomings of the Army during the Second World War. These books are the starting points for any study of this branch.
U.S. Marine Corps. History of the U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. 5 vols. Washington: Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters Marine Corps, 1958-68.
The 5-volume official history of the USMC in the Second World War is comprehensive in its coverage. The story of the Corps in that conflict is one of dramatic growth, development of doctrines and technologies, and hard-won victories on the islands of the Pacific. The focus, as the title states, is on the operational level of war, but strategy and tactics are not ignored.
Urwin, Gregory J. W. Victory in Defeat: The Wake Island Defenders in Captivity, 1941-1945. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2010.
In this sequel to Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island, Urwin explores the experiences of Wake defenders in captivity as Japanese prisoners of war. Using diaries, interviews, and archives, Urwin explains how and why the Wake defenders suffered one of the lowest death rates of all captured Allied units. He offers reasons for their survival, including maintenance of discipline, mutual support among the captives, generous aid from the Red Cross and other groups, and a few less-brutal Japanese guards.
Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944-1945. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
In this seminal examination of senior U.S. Army leaders in Europe from D-Day to V-E Day, Weigley explores the relationships, decision-making processes, and strengths and weaknesses of Eisenhower, Bradley, Patton, Montgomery, and others. Weigley reinforces conventional wisdom that Patton was the Allies’ best battlefield leader or that Montgomery tended toward timidity, but Weigley does so with such thorough command of the sources that his arguments are plausible.
Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Weinberg’s magisterial survey of the Second World War is sweeping in its scope, broad in its context, and thick in its analysis. Given the author’s expertise in strategy and diplomacy, this book focuses on the highest level of leadership. Weinberg does not favor the Allied or American perspectives. He also includes detailed coverage of the war between Germany and the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front.
Werrell, Kenneth P. Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over Japan during World War II. Washington: Smithsonian, 1996.
For Werrell, victory in Europe in 1944 made possible the shift of American strategic air power toward the Pacific and Japan. The arrival of the B-29 “Superfortress” with its long range and heavy payload, as well as the capture of the Marianas accelerated the bombing campaign against Japan. Werrell deals with practical matters like low-level compared to high-level raids as well as the firebombing tactics against Japanese urban centers. He also focuses on Curtis LeMay, who orchestrated the systematic and destructive raids in the last months of the Pacific War.
Expanded Bibliography
Alexander, Joseph A. Utmost Savagery: The Three Days of Tarawa. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995.
Bérubé, Allan. Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two. New York: Penguin, 1990.
Blumenson, Martin. Bloody River: The Real Tragedy of the Rapido. Reprint. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998.
Callahan, Raymond. Burma, 1941–1945. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1979.
Campbell, D’Ann. Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986.
D’Este, Carlo. Patton: A Genius for War. Reprint. Harper Perennial, 1996.
Fatal Decision: Anzio and the Battle for Rome. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008.
Doubler, Michael. Closing with the Enemy: How GIs Fought the War in Europe, 1944–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995.
Dower, John. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1997.
Gantter, Raymond. Roll Me Over: An Infantryman’s World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 2007.
Gray, J. Glenn. The Warriors: Reflections of Men in Battle. Reprint. Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 1998.
Hamner, Christopher. Enduring Battle: American Soldiers in Three Wars, 1776–1945. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011.
Jarvis, Christina S. The Male Body at War: American Masculinity during World War II. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2010.
Kindsvatter, Peter. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas Press, 2003.
Larrabee, Eric. Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War. New York: Harper and Row, 1987.
Lewis, Adrian R. Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
Linderman, Gerald. The World within War: America’s Combat Experience in World War II. New York: Free Press, 1997.
MacDonald, Charles B. Company Commander. New York: Ballantine Books, 1966.
Mansoor, Peter. The G.I. Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941–1945. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002.
MacGregor, Morris J. Integration of the Army Forces, 1940–1965. Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1981.
Marshall, S. L. A. Men Against Fire: The Problem of Command. Reprint. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
McManus, John F. Grunts: Inside the American Infantry Combat Experience, World War II through Iraq. New York: NAL, 2011.
September Hope: The American Side of a Bridge Too Far. New York: Penguin, 2012.
Murray, Williamson, and Allan R. Millett. A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard, 2001.
Ohl, James Kennedy. Supplying the Troops: Brehon Somervell and American Logistics in World War II. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994.
Polenberg, Richard. War and Society: The United States, 1941–1945. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1972.
Porch, Douglas. The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004.
Prange, Gordon W., with Daniel M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon. At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: Penguin, 1981.
Roeder, George, Jr. The Censored War: American Visual Experience during World War Two. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Rush, Robert Sterling. Hell in Hürtgen Forest: The Ordeal and Triumph of an American Infantry Regiment. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.
Sandler, Stanley. Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WW II. Washington: Smithsonian, 1998.
Schaffer, Ronald. Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Schrijvers, Peter. Bloody Pacific: American Soldiers at War with Japan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
Showalter, Dennis. Patton and Rommel: Men of War in the Twentieth Century. New York: Berkley, 2006.
Sledge, E. B. With the Old Breed at Peleliu and Okinawa. Reprint. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Smith, Kevin. Conflict over Convoys: Anglo-American Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Symonds, Craig. The Battle of Midway. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Syrett, David. Defeat of the German U-Boats: The Battle of the Atlantic. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
Terkel, Studs. The Good War: An Oral History of World War II. Reprint. New York: New Press, 1997.
Treadwell, Mattie E. The Women’s Army Corps. Washington: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1954.
Ulbrich, David J. Preparing for Victory: Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps 1936–1943. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011.
Urwin, Gregory J. W. Facing Fearful Odds: The Siege of Wake Island. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
Victory in Defeat: The Wake Island Defenders in Captivity, 1941–1945.Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2010.
Wilt, Alan F. The French Riviera Campaign of August 1944. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981.
Annotated Weblinks
Site: NavSource Naval History
URL: http://www.navsource.org/Naval/index.html
Description: One of the most thorough websites with information about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, the NavSource Naval History page is a great place to start if researching the event. There are extensive histories and photographs for every American ship that was docked in Pearl Harbor that day. There are also Japanese and American photographs during the attack, and photographic documentation of the aftermath. Be sure to reference the extensive, minute-by-minute deck logs of the vessels that were in and around Pearl Harbor that morning.
Site: Library of Congress, After the Day of Infamy Project
URL: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/afcphhtml/afcphhome.html
Description: After the Day of Infamy: "Man-on-the-Street" Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor is a Library of Congress project. On 8 December 1941, the “assistant in charge” of the Archive of American Folk Song, Alan Lomax, ordered fieldworkers in ten different localities across the United States to collect “man-on-the-street” reactions from Americans about Pearl Harbor and the American declaration of war. The approximately twelve hours of opinions the fieldworkers collected are an invaluable record of individual Americans and their reaction to a world-changing event.
Site: Hyperwar, The Tide Turns: Doolittle Raid, Coral Sea, Midway, Aleutians
URL: http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/TideTurns/index.html
Description: This link will take you to a great resource regarding American and Japanese operations in the Pacific Theater during the first two years of World War II. Providing you both primary and secondary source materials that cover the Doolittle Raid, the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, and the Aleutians Campaign, this website is a good place to start when researching this era of World War II.
-Site: Naval Historical and Heritage Command, “Battle of Midway”
URL: https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/world-war-ii/1942/midway.html
Description: The U.S. Navy’s Naval Historical and Heritage Command has produced a one-stop shop website that compiles all Navy-produced writings on the Battle of Midway. From oral histories to strategic lessons, anything and everything about the U.S. Navy and the Battle of Midway can be found here.
Site: Rutgers Oral History Archives
URL: http://oralhistory.rutgers.edu/military-history
Description: One of the best oral history projects on World War II veterans, the Rutgers Oral History Archives is a treasure trove of interviews. The project has been conducting oral histories since 1994, compiling up to 1,200 interviews to date. The interviewees have been either New Jersey residents and/or Rutgers University alumni, faculty, or staff. Divided by theater, branch, or topic, the website is easily navigable.
Site: University of Tennessee, Knoxville Center for the Study of War & Society Oral History Project
URL: http://csws.utk.edu/oral-history-project/
Description: As part of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville’s Center for the Study of War & Society, the Oral History Project is, like Rutgers’s, an indispensable tool for anyone studying World War II from the individual’s perspective. UT’s project is divided by the European and Pacific Theaters as well as by the home front. All interviews are transcribed, making them keyword searchable.
Site: National Archives, Pictures of World War II
URL: http://www.archives.gov/research/military/ww2/photos/
Description: Some of the most iconic World War II photographs the National Archives holds are available on this website. Divided by topic, this is a good place to start when looking for high quality photographs from the war.
Site: National Archives, Pictures of African Americans during World War II
URL: http://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/ww2-pictures/
Description: A National Archives project in celebration of the 50th anniversary of World War II, Pictures of African Americans during World War II is in honor of the 2.5 million African-American men who registered for the draft, and the African-American women who volunteered in large numbers.
Site: University of Texas Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection
URL: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_ww2.html
Description: This University of Texas collection is the easiest way to access the U.S. Army Center of Military History-produced battle maps of World War II.
Site: U.S. Army Center of Military History U.S. Army in World War II Series “Green Books”
URL: http://www.history.army.mil/html/bookshelves/collect/usaww2.html
Description: Known as the “Green Books” because of their green cloth covers, the U.S. Army Center of Military History’s official histories of World War II are an indispensable resource and are, thankfully, completely digitized online. If you are ever in search for an in-depth, thorough narrative of the war – or any American war – begin here.
Site: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Black Wings: African American Pioneer Aviators
URL: https://www.smithsonianchannel.com/shows/black-wings/0/141063
Description: Black Wings: African American Pioneer Aviators is a Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum online exhibit honoring the early black pilots who overcame formidable obstacles to obtain their dream of flying. The website provides stories of famous black aviators who flew in World War II, and insights into their lives. It also allows you to search through the Air and Space Museum’s archives to discover more.
Site: The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, The Betty H. Carter Women Veterans Historical Project
URL: http://library.uncg.edu/dp/wv/branch/?b=3
Description: Since 1998, the Betty H. Carter Women Veterans Historical Project at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro has documented the contributions of women in the military and other service organizations since World War I. The project has collected photographs, letters, diaries, scrapbooks, oral histories, uniforms, posters, and published works. If interested in women who served in the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs), the Women in the Air Force (WAF), the U.S. Air Force, and the Air Force Nurse Corps, be sure to visit this website. The website offers several oral histories, letters, and photographs.
Site: Texas Woman’s University, Women Airforce Service Pilots Official Archive
URL: https://twu.edu/library/womans-collection/university-archives/
Description: Texas Woman’s University houses the official archive of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs). If you want to learn about the 1,074 women who were pioneers in aviation, this collection is the first place to look.
Site: American-Divisions, “Report of the Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces to the Combined Chiefs of Staff on Operations in Northwest Africa”
URL: http://www.american-divisions.com/doc.asp?documentid=138&pagenumber=1 Description: This link will take you to a scanned original copy of General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s report to the Combined Chiefs of Staff regarding Operation TORCH in November 1942.
Site: American-Divisions, “PLAN ‘HUSKY’”
URL: http://www.american-divisions.com/doc.asp?documentid=108&pagenumber=1
Description: Follow this link to view a scanned original copy of the operations plan for Operation HUSKY, the Allied bid to take Sicily in July 1943.