Summary
Chapter 15 begins with the legacy of the Vietnam War and the U.S. military. The Vietnam War cast a long shadow over the next four decades after its end in 1973. Every president had to come to grips with the Vietnam experience and face the ongoing threat of conflict with the Soviet Union or its satellites persisted. Richard M. Nixon and Gerald R. Ford tried to ease Cold War tensions and started to restructure the U.S. military’s personnel policies, doctrines, and weapons in light of lessons of Vietnam. In 1977, the newly-inaugurated President Jimmy Carter unveiled a more cooperative, less antagonistic Cold War strategy; but within three years, America’s enemies exploited and reversed the trend back to more confrontational policies. As a result, the United States returned to a more aggressive Cold War strategy during Ronald W. Reagan’s presidency from 1981 to 1989, entailing a massive military expansion that surpassed the Soviet Union’s ability to keep pace.
The surprisingly rapid and peaceful disintegration of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War in 1991. During the same period, President George H.W. Bush sent the powerful American military to war in the Persian Gulf to halt aggression and protect American interests. The American victory seemed to herald Pax Americana and a new era of global stability. Beginning in 1993, an optimistic President Bill Clinton cast the U.S. military in peacekeeping and peacemaking roles in regional conflicts. Whereas this direct involvement succeeded in some cases, it stimulated the growth of anti-American terrorism.
Glossary
AirLand Battle- U.S. Army combat doctrine developed by General Donn Starry of TRADOC and published in the 1982 Field Manual 100-5 Operations for an offensive approach against the Soviet Union in a potential war by using combined arms to execute “close,” “deep,” and “rear” operations.
All-Volunteer Force- The post-Vietnam War United States military beginning in 1973 that followed the unpopular draft system.
Apache helicopter- Developed by Hughes Helicopter, the Apache is the U.S. Army’s primary attack helicopter since its delivery to combat units in 1986. Specifically designed as a tank-killer against Soviet threats during the Cold War, in Iraq and Afghanistan it has filled the role of tactical air support for ground forces.
Bosnia- A former Yugoslavian province, the location of NATO peace keeping efforts beginning in 1995 after Serbian military forces invaded in 1992.
George H.W. Bush- (1924- ), 41st President of the United States (1989-1993), vice president in the Ronald Reagan administration (1981-1989), Bush was the head of state during the end of the Cold War and throughout the Gulf War.
Jimmy Carter- (1924- ), 37th President of the United States (1977-1981), Carter sought a more cooperative Cold War strategy with communists, shifting the military and diplomatic stances to a less belligerent stance. In response to crises in 1980, however, he adopted the Carter Doctrine and amplified the projection of American military power in the Middle East.
Bill Clinton- (1946- ), 42nd President of the United States (1993-2001), Clinton’s foreign policy attempted to utilize American power to bring order and democracy to an uncertain post-Cold War world in the hopes of creating Pax Americana – American Peace. In the midst of peacekeeping and humanitarian missions during the Clinton presidency, the U.S. military made several preemptive attacks against perceived threats to American security and global peace.
“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”- Department of Defense policy adopted in 1993 that prohibited questions about sexual orientation for those in the U.S. military, yet permitted disciplinary action against anyone claiming to be gay or was caught participating in homosexual or lesbian acts. A controversial policy from the beginning, it was repealed by Barack Obama on September 20, 2011.
F-15 “Eagle”- The U.S. Air Force’s premier all-weather tactical fighter, entering American service in 1976.
F-16 “Falcon”- A U.S. Air Force all-weather single-seat fighter capable of filling air-to-air and air-to-ground roles, entering American service in 1978.
Gerald Ford- (1913-2006), The 38th President of the United States (1974-1977), taking the presidency after the resignation of Richard Nixon after the Watergate Scandal. Ford tried to pursue a strategy of asymmetric containment, negotiated nuclear arms limitations with the Soviets, and initiated impactful military reforms in the post-Vietnam era.
Michelle Howard – (1960-), A graduate of the U.S. Navy Academy, she was first women to command a U.S. Navy ship – the USS Rushmore – in 1999. Howard was also the first women and the first African-American women to be promoted to the rank of admiral (four stars) in the U.S. Navy in 2014. She then served as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations.
Field Manual 100-5 Operations- U.S. Army doctrine manual, with the 1976 edition elucidating “Active Defense” and the 1982 edition providing the plans for AirLand Battle.
Henry Kissinger- (1923- ), President Richard Nixon’s National Security Advisor and principal foreign policy consultant, and secretary of state in the Gerald Ford administration. Kissinger is known for his political realism, and his attempt in the Nixon and Ford administrations to utilize diplomacy and deterrence rather than symmetric military force to contain communism.
Kosovo- A former province of Yugoslavia and the sight of American and NATO peacekeeping efforts in 1999 in response to atrocities committed by Serbians in the Kosovo War.
Iran-Contra Scandal- A political scandal during the Ronald Reagan presidential administration caused by Reagan’s secret authorization of the CIA to finance, train, and arm Nicaragua counterrevolutionaries from 1982-1985 with the profits from illegal sale of weapons to Iran.
M-1 Abrams- The main U.S. military battle tank. Entering service in 1980 as part of the Army’s “Big Five” advanced weapons systems projects, it has been used extensively in the Gulf War as well as in the Global War on Terror.
National Strategy for Engagement and Enlargement- Otherwise known as the Clinton Doctrine, a 1995 version of the White House document outlined a policy of interventionism in the Clinton Administration.
Operation DESERT STORM- Multinational military operations from January 17 – February 28, 1991 against Iraq after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. American-led coalition forces quickly crossed the Saudi border into Iraq and Kuwait on February 24, and just after 100 hours of combat operations a cease fire was called.
Operation EAGLE CLAW- An April 1980 mission to rescue American hostages in Iran by the American special operations unit, Delta Force; aborted due to inclement weather and equipment malfunctions that cost eight American lives.
Operation URGENT FURY- The American invasion of Grenada from October-December 1983 in order to evacuate American citizens and remove its government from power.
Persian Gulf War- A conflict in the Persian Gulf from August 1990 to February 1991. After Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait the international response resulted in an American-led coalition that launched Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, leading to an Iraqi military defeat and stiff sanctions against the Baghdad regime.
Powell Doctrine- A national security doctrine named after retired Army general Colin Powell during his time as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Essentially a modified Weinberger Doctrine, it dictated where, when, why, how much, and how long the United States could use military force in an effort to avoid open-ended conflicts like the Vietnam War; adhered to most notably during the Persian Gulf War.
Ronald Reagan- (1911-2004), The 40th President of the United States (1981-1989), Reagan’s presidency returned to a more aggressive Cold War strategy than his predecessors. Ending détente and directing the resurgence of military power through increased expenditures, Reagan reinvigorated an anti-communism strategy with the Reagan Doctrine by combining symmetric containment, asymmetric containment, and attempts at rollback in the Third World.
SALT I Treaty- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks treaty from 1972, negotiated during Richard Nixon between the United States and Soviet Union; the agreement froze the numbers of certain nuclear missile systems and their launch sites at the current levels.
SALT II Treaty- Strategic Arms Limitation Talks treaty from 1979, negotiated during the Gerald Ford presidency; an agreement between the United States and Soviet Union for the limitation of nuclear arms.
Star Wars- The Strategic Defense Initiative, an anti-ballistic missile program proposed by President Ronald Reagan in 1983.
TRADOC – Part of the post-Vietnam U.S. Army reforms, the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) was an organization that absorbed training, doctrinal, and combat development tasks. Its first two commanders were General William E. DePuy and General Donn A. Starry.
Weinberg Doctrine -- Named after Reagan’s defense secretary, Caspar Weinberger, this doctrine was born from the American experiences in Vietnam. In 1984, Weinberger argued there needed to be strict limitations and carefully-defined parameters for use of American military power. If criteria were satisfied, then force could be utilized. These ideas set the tone for the rest of the Reagan years and presaged subsequent presidential doctrines for the use of military power.
Yom Kippur War – A war between Israel and neighboring Arab nations, Egypt and Syria, that began on 6 October 1973. Egyptian and Syrian troops launched two surprise attacks into Israeli-held territory and used Soviet-made T-62 and T-72 tanks. Both sides employed combined arms operations and tactics with lethal results. American strategists took note of the conflict, making the Yom Kippur Wars the 1970s model for how the United States would fight the Soviet Union in Europe.
Mogadishu, Battle of- an October 3, 1993 raid by elite U.S. special operations units to locate and capture key Somali leaders in the nation’s capital. Several helicopters from the U.S. Army’s 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment crash landed due to hits taken, necessitating rescue attempts. Street fighting against 4,000 Somali militia required an armored relief column to evacuate the American personnel on October 4.
Flashcards
Annotated Bibliography
Bailey, Beth. America’s Army: Making of the All-Volunteer Force. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009.
America’s Army is an intricate look into the transition of the post-Vietnam War U.S. Army from draftee to all-volunteer force (AVF). Bailey explains why the U.S. has the army it does today and illustrates how state and social forces view the army and require it to change, while also examining how the army views itself and its orders, even when those orders strike at the core of its makeup.
Blitz, Brad K., ed. War and Change in the Balkans: Nationalism, Conflict, and Cooperation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
The 20 chapters in this anthology examines the causes for the Balkans conflicts in the 1990s and traces the aftermath. The international authors focus on several topics: the end of Yugoslavia, the evolution of the nations, the significance of nationalism in warmaking and peacemaking, the roles of outside actors as policy makers, and democratization and entrance into the European community. Include personal accounts and scholarly analyses.
Bowden, Mark. Black Hawk Down: A Story of Modern War. New York: Atlantic Monthly, 1999.
A moment-by-moment narrative of a mission on 3 October 1993 to abduct two Somali warlord’s lieutenants that went horribly wrong, Black Hawk Down is a now-famous work. It is one of the best – if not the best – works on the Battle of Mogadishu and tells the story of the one-hundred Rangers and Delta Force operators who had to fight their way through thousands of heavily-armed Somalis after two Blackhawks were shot down.
Bouchet, Nicolas. Democracy Promotion as US Foreign Policy. London: Routledge, 2015.
This book explores expanding role of American promotion of democracy across the globe in the years from the end of the Cold War. Starting with President Bill Clinton’s strategy of enlargement and enhance of democracy, Bouchet finds patterns of continuity and change running through the presidencies of George W. Bush and Barrack Obama. Sometimes the effort succeeded, but it failed at other times.
Gaddis, John L. We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
The eminent Cold War historian John L. Gaddis peers back into the Cold War and used hindsight to reassess the events, personalities, and policies of that conflict. Gaddis answers questions about why the Cold War started, evolved as it did, and lasted so long. He seeks to vindicate the American strategies to contain Soviet and communist expansion.
House, Jonathan M. A Military History of the Cold War, 1962-1991. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 2020.
In this military history from 1962 to the end of the Cold War, Jonathan House examines the armed conflicts among the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies and proxies. Among the conflicts in this book are the Vietnam War and other regional disputes in the Third World. As often as not, these conflicts started, continued, and ended with results outside American or Soviet control, as well as contrary to their respective strategic goals.
Karcher, Timothy. Understanding the ‘Victory Disease,’ From the Little Bighorn to Mogadishu and Beyond. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 2004.
This comparative history examined the similarities and differences between the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876 and the fighting in Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993. The author finds that, although each action exhibited divergent types and levels of technologies and tactics, they shared an American underestimation of enemy capabilities and determination. Such assumptions about American military superiority led to many American casualties and defeats in both battles. Thus, this book is a cautionary tale.
Keefer, Edward C. Harold Brown: Offsetting the Soviet Military Challenge, 1977-1981. Washington: Office of the Secretary of Defense, Historical Office, 2017.
This book is part of the Secretaries of Defense Historical Series and thus an official history. The author traces the roles, policies, and ideas of Harold Brown, who served as Secretary of Defense during Jimmy Carter’s presidency. Brown offered advice to the President and other American leaders regarding the Soviet Union’s conventional and nuclear threats. He also managed the Defense Department during the early years of the All-Volunteer Force. This book explores the strategic, fiscal, and policy challenges faced by Brown as his department downsized for three years and then began growing in 1980.
Lambeth, Benjamin S. The Transformation of American Air Power. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000.
A product of post-Vietnam thinking in the U.S. Air Force, this book is ultimately an argument for the supremacy of tactical air power over strategic bombing. Lambeth charts the evolution of an American air power from Vietnam to the conflicts in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Serbia, showing that failures in Vietnam led to a successful realignment toward air-delivered precision weapons in lieu of ground forces to achieve strategic objectives while ensuring minimal casualties by avoiding ground warfare.
Lehman, John F., Jr. Command of the Seas: Building the 600 Ship Navy. New York: Charles Scribner’s Son, 1988.
This memoir comprises the authors’ own experiences, decisions, and attitudes while he served as Secretary of the Navy from 1981 to 1987 during Ronald Reagan’s presidency. He was instrumental in pushing for expansion to a 600-ship U.S. Navy and of American maritime power, though the Navy never reached that number of warships. Among other topics in this book are the controversial retirement of Admiral Hyman Rickover and the Navy’s involvement in combat operations in Lebanon, Libya, and Grenada.
Linn, Brian McAllister. Real Soldiering: The US Army in the Aftermath of War, 1815-1980. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2023.
Linn tackles a seldom-covered topic in this book about how and why the U.S. Army demobilized after conflicts ended. Using the War of 1812, Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War as case studies, this book analyzes the effects as most American soldiers left service in the peacetimes the followed the fighting. Linn finds some similarities among the wars: defunding of the U.S. Army, applying lessons of the past wars to the future, recruiting and retention challenges, and anticipating and preparing for future missions.
Litwak, Robert S. Détente and the Nixon Doctrine: American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability, 1969-1976. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
This book examines the Nixon Doctrine as it evolved during Richard Nixon’s and Gerald Ford’s presidencies from 1969 to 1977. Nixon tried to avoid direct military confrontations and instead support American allies with financial aid. Events such as the American withdrawal from Vietnam in 1973 and the Nixon’s mission to China receive attention, as does the Nixon’s relationship with his National Security Advisor and later Secretary of State Henry Kissinger.
Roth, Tanya L. Her Cold War: Women in the U.S. Military, 1945-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2021.
This book traces the history of women in the U.S. military from the end of World War II through the end of the 1970s. Those years saw the passages of the Women’s Armed Services Integration Act in 1948 and the disbanding of the WAC in 1978. Women served in roles based on presumed gender-typed distinctions. They also endured service restrictions because of pregnancy and motherhood. Roth reveals how those women tried to increased equality of promotions and opportunities for women that open doors for women decades later in the 21st century.
Søndergaard, Rasmus Sinding. “Bill Clinton’s ‘Democratic Enlargement’ and the Securitisation of Democracy Promotion." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26, no 3 (2015): 534-551.
This article looks at President Bill Clinton’s efforts to craft a new American strategies and foreign policies in the post-Cold War world. He adopted democratic enlargement as his goal. According Søndergaard, Clinton blended promoting democracy with the need for security. These two intertwining themes evolved into the foundation for American militarism and interventionism during George W. Bush’s presidency (2001-2009).
Trauschweizer, Ingo. The Cold War U.S. Army: Building Deterrence for Limited War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008.
Trauschweizer considers strategy, doctrine, and technology in the Cold War U.S. Army. He argues that the evolution of the service into a force capable of nuclear and conventional combat was in response to budgetary constraints, evolving strategy, threat perceptions, and political needs of the United States and its allies.
Woodward, Bob. The Commanders. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991.
In this book, a prominent journalist looks at the senior leaders in President George H.W. Bush’s administration during the two years leading up to the Persian Gulf War in 1991. Woodward details the decision-makers like Bush, General Colin Powell, Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, and others; and he analyzes the reasons for the military decisions they made.
Yoshitani, Gail E.S. Reagan on War: A Reappraisal of the Weinberger Doctrine, 1980-1984. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2011.
This book reassesses the meaning and significance of the Weinberger Doctrine during Ronald Reagan’s first term as president. According to conventional wisdom, the Weinberger Doctrine was a reaction to the defeat in Vietnam, and that it sought to avoid problematic American conflicts in the future or only to use force as a last resort. Yoshitani uses historical examples to argue that Weinberger wanted to establish military force as a legitimate strategic option for the United States.
Expanded Bibliography
Bacevich, Andrew J. The Limits of Power: The End of American Exceptionalism. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2008.
Baybrook, Roy. Air Power: The Coalition and Iraqi Air Forces. London: Osprey, 1991.
Bellavia, David. House to House: An Epic Memoir of War. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Blackwell, James. Thunder in the Desert: The Strategy and Tactics of the Persian Gulf War. New York: Bantam Books, 1991.
Carhart, Tom. Iron Soldiers; How America's First Armored Division Crushed Iraq's Elite Republican Guard. New York: Pocket Books, 1994.
Clark, Wesley K. Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat. New York: Public Affairs, 2002.
Crane, Conrad C. Avoiding Vietnam: The US Army’s Response to Defeat in Southeast Asia. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2002.
Friedman, Norman. Unmanned Combat Air Systems: A New Kind of Carrier Aviation. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2010.
Gallagher, Matt. Kaboom: Embracing the Suck in a Savage Little War. Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 2010.
Galula, David. Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.
Gordon, Michael R., and Bernard E. Trainor, Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006
Kilcullen, David. Counterinsurgency. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Mahnken, Thomas G. Technology and the American Way of War since 1945. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
Metz, Steven. Iraq and the Evolution of American Strategy. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2008.
Naylor, Sean. Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda. New York: Berkley Books, 2005.
Ricks, Thomas E. The Gamble: General David Petraeus and the American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2006–2008. New York: Penguin, 2009.
Rico, Johnny. Blood Makes the Grass Grow Green: A Year in the Desert with Team America. New York: Presidio Press, 2007.
Ucko, David H. The New Counterinsurgency Era: Transforming the U.S. Military for Modern Wars. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2009.
Willbanks, James. Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008.
Wright, Donald et al. A Different Kind of War: The U.S. Army in Operation Enduring Freedom, October 2001–2005. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, May 2010.
Annotated Weblinks
Site: U.S. Government Printing Office, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States
URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=PPP
Description: This link will take you to the U.S. Government Printing Office’s website for all presidential writings, addresses, photographs, and remarks of a public nature, from Richard Nixon to Bill Clinton.
Site: Edwin E. Moïse, “Vietnam War Bibliography: The Last Stage, 1973-1975”
URL: https://edmoise.sites.clemson.edu/end.html
This site includes a comprehensive set of sources on the last years of the Vietnam War. Many sources have active links and are available online. Others have complete citations.
Site: Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, “The Vietnam War Declassification Project”
URL: http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/exhibits/vietnam/vietnam.asp
Description: For the 25th anniversary of the fall of Saigon, the Gerald R. Ford Library staff declassified almost 40,000 pages of National Security Adviser files on Indochina. Go to this online exhibit for a look at scanned copies of Ford White House primary source documents.
Site: Bernard D. Rotsker, I Want You: The Evolution of the All-Volunteer Force, RAND Corporation, 2006
URL: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2007/RAND_MG265.pdf
This book goes into great detail to trace the history of the All-Volunteer Force in the U.S. Military from 1973 into the twenty-first century. Rotsker examines the factors and results of policy decisions and changes over time.
Site: Robert A. Strong, “Jimmy Carter: Foreign Affairs,” Miller Center, University of Virginia
URL: https://millercenter.org/president/carter/foreign-affairs
This article aligns President Jimmy Carter with idealistic leaders like Woodrow Wilson. This article surveys Carter’s key issues in foreign affairs to include human rights, the Panama Canal, the Camp David Accords, relations with the Soviet Union, recognition of China, and the Iran hostage crisis.
Site: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum, “NSSDs Digitized Reference Copies”
URL: https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/reagans/reagan-administration/nssds-digitized-reference-copies
This site contains the President Ronald Reagan’s National Security Study Directives from 1981 to 1988. Topics include US Policy toward the Soviet Union, National Space Policy, U.S Technology Transfer Policy, and U.S.-Third World Hunger Relief.
Site: FRONTLINE, The Gulf War: An In-Depth Examination of the 1990-1991 Persian Gulf Crisis
URL: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/index.html
Description: PBS’s FRONTLINE has created a good website about the Persian Gulf War, including oral histories, personal war stories, and an examination of weapons and technology.
Site: West Point, The First Gulf War Battle and Campaign Maps
URL: https://www.westpoint.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/digital-history-center/atlases
Description: If looking for detailed maps of operations in the First Gulf War, visit this link from the United States Military Academy.
Site: The White House, A National Security Strategy for Engagement and Enlargement
URL: https://history.defense.gov/Portals/70/Documents/nss/nss1994.pdf
Description: Follow this link to see a 1995 copy of what would be known as “The Clinton Doctrine” but what the Clinton White House referred to as A National Security Strategy for Engagement and Enlargement.
Site: Government Sources by Subject: Gays in the Military, University of Washington Libraries
URL: https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g=341739&p=2304282
Description: A set of laws, government documents, and other reports regarding policies about gays serving in the U.S. military. The contents cover the time period from 1991 to 2010.