Summary
Chapter 2 will focus on the numerous seventeenth-century North American conflicts that natives and colonists waged, often stemming from regional tensions but increasingly because of outside influences. Starting in 1689, European wars had spilled across the Atlantic Ocean. Hostilities between Western European states precipitated wars between their American colonies – and this direction reversed in some mid-eighteenth century conflicts. These imperial contests pitted New France against New York and New England, and southern British colonies against Spanish Florida. The last of these wars, the Seven Years War or the French & Indian War, ended in 1763 with Great Britain dominating the continent.
Amidst these broader struggles, local tensions provoked some regional hostilities between Indians and colonists. Even imperial wars in North America often became a number of simultaneous conflicts prosecuted in different areas. Indian groups played crucial roles in all these campaigns, and low-intensity conflict of raids and ambushes typical of earlier seventeenth-century hostilities was common. However, both Britain and France dispatched sizeable regular forces across the Atlantic during the French and Indian War. As a result, conventional, high-intensity operations played a much greater role in this conflict, and British victories in these campaigns ultimately led the France to abandon its colonies in mainland North America. This British success, however, contained the seeds of future conflict. London’s solutions to pay off its war debt while simultaneously deploying large numbers of troops and warships around the world produced alarm and consternation among its colonists, ultimately leading to the American Revolution.
In this chapter, students will learn about late-seventeenth century developments that led to wars between European states and their American colonies from 1689 to 1763. It will cover not only the regional conflicts between particular native peoples and colonies but also the imperial wars in which New France fought against northern British colonies and the imperial wars in which Spanish Florida fought against British colonies in the south. Throughout is the theme of the changing proportion of low-intensity to high-intensity warfare in North America, and the roles played by Indian warriors, colonial forces, and regular European troops.
Glossary
King William’s War- (1689-1697), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, War of the League of Augsburg, between France and Britain. King William’s War pitted the Europeans’ colonial territories against one another along with their various Indian allies.
Queen Anne’s War- (1702-1713), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, Queen Anne’s War, between France, Spain, and England and their various Indian allies.
War of Jenkins’ Ear- (1739-1748), A conflict between Spain and Great Britain over their colonial holdings in North America. Fighting on the southern Atlantic seaboard, in Florida and Georgia.
King George’s War- (1744-1748), The North American theater of a larger war in Europe, the War of Austrian Succession. King George’s War pitted New France against Britain’s colonial holdings, along with their respective Indian allies.
French and Indian War- (1754-1763), The North American theater of a larger war between European belligerents, the Seven Years’ War. French and British colonial forces employed various Indian allies for most of the war, and with the fall of Montreal the British established their superior presence in North America over the French.
Seven Years’ War- (1754-1763), The larger war that occurred concurrently with the French and Indian War. With fighting occurring across the globe and between a substantial number of belligerents, some have considered it to be truly the first world war.
Tuscarora War- (1711-1715), A conflict in colonial North Carolina between European settlers populating and the Tuscarora peoples.
Yamasee War- (1715-1717), A conflict in colonial South Carolina between British settlers and their one-time allies, the Yamasee, including other bands of native peoples allied with the Yamasee.
The Glorious Revolution- The turnover of power in England during 1688-1699. Angered by the policies of King James II, members of Parliament arranged to have Protestants William III of Orange-Nassau and his wife, Mary II of England, seize power form the Catholic king.
William III & Mary II- (1650-1702; 1662-1694), Joint rulers of England who took power during the Glorious Revolution.
Leisler’s Rebellion- A 1689 revolt in New York led by merchant and German immigrant Jacob Leisler influenced by the turnover of power in England due to the Glorious Revolution. It ended in 1691 when King William III appointed William Sloughter governor, who tried and executed Leisler.
Treaty of Ryswick- The 1697 treaty that ended the War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697).
Comte de Frontenac- (1622-1698), Governor of the colony of New France from 1672 to 1682 and again from 1689 to 1698. As part of King William’s War, in 1689 Frontenac ordered offensive campaigns against the English to defend his colony. A year later he launched attacks against the northern English settlements of Schenectady, Salmon Falls, and Falmouth.
Schenectady- New York settlement attacked and destroyed by the French with Indian allies in February 1690 during King William’s War.
Salmon Falls- A New Hampshire settlement attacked and destroyed in March 1690 by French and Indian forces as part of King William’s War.
Falmouth- An English settlement in Main attacked by French and Indian forces in May 1690 as part of King William’s War.
Port Royal- A French port in French Acadia, or present-day Nova Scotia, sacked by Sir William Phips.
French Acadia/Nova Scotia- A French-held territory during King William’s War and the target of attempts by New England in 1690.
Sir William Phips- (1650-1694), A British commander and governor of Massachusetts Bay who had successfully sacked Port Royal in French Acadia. He also headed a failed campaign in 1690 during King William’s War against the French-held Quebec.
Covenant Chain- A series of treaties in the 1670s between New York governor Sir Edmund Andros and the Five Nations.
Abenaki- A French-allied Native American people from New England. Beginning in 1690 New England colonists continually fought the Abenaki on the frontier.
Benjamin Church- (ca. 1639-1718), The leader of the first group of rangers in America, known for emulating Indian tactics to use against natives in New England during King Williams War and Queen Anne’s War.
St. Augustine- The primary Spanish settlement in Florida through the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, and the sight of the oldest fort in America, Castillo de San Marcos. The importance of the settlement induced South Carolina governor James Moore to attempt to capture the town in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War, which ultimately failed.
Charlestown- South Carolina city and the primary British settlement in the American south. During Queen Anne’s War; target of a failed Franco-Spanish campaign in 1706.
Deerfield- A Massachusetts town and the target of a February 29, 1704 raid by Frenchmen and their Indian allies during Queen Anne’s War. It represented the nexus of French and native interests during the imperial wars. While the Indians acquired plunder and captives and the French were satisfied that they forced New Englanders to focus on frontier defense and operations against Indians rather than against Canada.
Sir Hovenden Walker- The British commander of a 1711 campaign against Quebec during Queen Anne’s War. The manpower amassed during the operation had been unparalleled in America to that point, and the failed campaign helped convince Britain to seek peace with France and Spain.
Treaty of Utrecht- A treaty that ended Queen Anne’s War in 1713.
Louisbourg- France’s major naval base in North America, located on Cape Breton Island which controlled approaches to the St. Lawrence River. During King George’s War (1744-1748) Louisbourg became an important base of operations for the French, but New England colonial forces capitalized on French tactical mistakes and captured it in June 1745.
James Moore- The governor of South Carolina who mounted an expedition against Spanish Saint Augustine in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War.
Castillo de San Marcos- The Spanish fort at Saint Augustine, Florida, and the oldest standing fortification in North America. Castillo de San Marcos was the target of a failed campaign by English forces in 1702 during Queen Anne’s War.
Yamasees- A confederation of Native Americans and allies of the colony of South Carolina during Queen Anne’s War, namely the failed campaign to take Saint Augustine and the Spanish fort Castillo de San Marcos.
Creek- Native peoples of what is now Georgia and Alabama who allied with the English against the Spanish during Queen Anne’s War.
Louisiana- A French colony established in 1699. The Treaty of Paris that ended the French & Indian War forced France to hand Louisiana over to Spain.
Pensacola- A Florida town and the location of a key Spanish fort built in 1698.
Apalachee- Native American people indigenous to Florida who were devastated by slaving raids of the English and their Indian allies during Queen Anne’s War.
Choctaw- Indian allies of the Louisiana French and the target of English slaving raids throughout the eighteenth century.
Tuscarora- Native Americans who dwelled in North Carolina. The group suffered greatly during the Tuscarora War of 1711-13, losing many killed and enslaved by the English and their allies, whereupon many Tuscarora migrated north to New York to become the Sixth Nation of the Iroquois.
Dummer’s War- (1722-1727), A conflict between the eastern Abenaki and New England colonists.
Natchez War- (1729-33) A conflict between the Natchzez who resided in modern-day Mississippi and French colonists in Louisiana. French retaliation for the Natchez destroying colonial settlements and killing or capturing hundres of white settlers and black slaves caused many Natchez to disperse and live with other native peoples.
Chickasaw- Native group of the American southeast, namely around present-day Mississippi and Alabama, who became embroiled in conflict with French colonists from 1736 to 1740 as a result of the Natchez War.
Georgia- An American state, founded as a colony in 1732 by James Ogelthorpe in the hopes of providing economic opportunities for poor Englishman, but also as a buffer between Spanish Florida and South Carolina.
James Oglethorpe- (1696-1785), Former British army officer and the founder of the colony of Georgia in 1732.
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- The 1748 treaty that ended the War of Austrian Succession in Austria. In North America it restored all territories to their original owners, meaning the British colonists begrudgingly returned the fortress of Louisbourg to the French, an ostensible security threat in the eyes of the British in New England.
St. Simon’s island- The location of British forts on the coast of Georgia.
Cartagena- A Spanish port that served Spanish treasure fleets moving South American gold and silver to Europe. An ambitious British operation in 1741 that utilized American colonists in a raid on Cartagena ended in disaster when many of the volunteers died from tropical disease.
John Bradstreet- (1714-1774), A British officer and former prisoner at the French fortress of Louisbourg who revealed that the garrison there was undermanned, underequipped, and suffering from low morale. The information helped the New England colonies mobilize and eventually in June 1745 capture of the fort.
William Pitt- (1708-1778), Prime minister of England during the Seven Years’ War.
Ohio River Valley- The area that constituted the frontier area during the French and Indian War, encompassing territory west of the Appalachians – much of modern-day Ohio, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. Disputes between the French and British over ownership the territory led to tension and conflict in the middle of the eighteenth century.
Forks of the Ohio/Fort Duquesne- A French fort at the confluence of Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers and where they form the Ohio River. The French used it as a staging point for raids into Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia frontiers. British attempts to capture the fort finally succeeded in 1758.
George Washington- (1732-1799), Commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and first President of the United States. In April 1754 Washington guided a regiment of volunteers into the Ohio Country in order to build a fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. France used the execution of French diplomatic envoy and diplomats by Washington’s Indian guides during the mission as a pretext for war.
Edward Braddock- (1695-1755), Major general in the British Army who commanded all British forces in the American colonies during the early moments of the French and Indian War. In 1755 Braddock led a failed expedition to the key French Fort Duquesne.
Fort Niagara- A French fort at the head of Lake Ontario and a key part of their supply system of the interior during the French and Indian War. The British captured the position in July 1759.
Lake Champlain- Lake between New York and Vermont strategically important to both the French and the British during the French and Indian War.
Battle of the Monongahela- The July 9, 1755 battle during the French and Indian War where French and their Indian allies defeated British Major General Edward Braddock’s more conventional force. Braddock himself died of wounds sustained during the battle.
Fort Oswego- A key British fort on Lake Ontario captured and destroyed by the French in 1756 during the French and Indian War.
Fort William Henry- A British fort at the southern end of Lake George in New York. A French siege during the French and Indian War began on August 3, 1757 and lasted less than a week before the British requested a truce. The resultant “Massacre of Fort William Henry” has become popularized by the novel The Last of the Mohicans and its film adaptation.
Micmac- Native peoples near the St. Lawrence River valley allied with New France.
William Shirley- (1694-1771), Governor of Massachusetts and temporary commander of all British forces in America following Edward Braddock’s death in 1755.
James Abercromby- (1706-1781), British general officer and commander of all British forces during the French and Indian War in America for a short time in 1758. His incompetent leadership in the assault against the French Fort Carillon led to an ignominious British defeat and Abercromby being relieved of his command by Jeffrey Amherst.
Fort Frontenac- A French fort located where Lake Ontario empties into the St. Lawrence River, and strategically crucial for them to supply their forts deeper in the American interior during the French and Indian War.
Lord Loudoun- (1705-1782), A British lieutenant general, well known for his apathy toward the colonial forces during his tenure as commander of all British forces from 1756 to 1758.
Marquis de Vaudreuil- (1698-1778), The last governor-general of New France.
Marquis de Montcalm- (1712-1759), The commander of French forces in North America during the French and Indian war beginning in 1756. Montcalm’s successes include capturing the British Fort Oswego and Fort William Henry and defending Fort Carillon. His defense of Quebec against the British ultimately failed, however.
Jeffrey Amherst- (1717-1797), Overall British commander in North America from 1758 to 1763, and personally in command of the British forces that captured Montreal, ending the French and Indian War.
John Forbes- (1707-1759), British brigadier general during the French and Indian War who helped to arrange a conference that led to the Treaty of Easton, bringing peace with hostile native peoples. His forces were also the first to take possession of Fort Duquesne after the French had fled the area in 1758.
Treaty of Easton- A 1758 agreement during the French and Indian War that brought peace between the British and formerly hostile native peoples who had been allied with the French.
James Wolfe- (1727-1759), British army officer whose forces defeated the French commander Marquis de Montcalm during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and allowed the British to capture Quebec. Wolfe died from wounds sustained during the fighting, immortalized in the painting, The Death of General Wolfe.
Battle of the Plains of Abraham- The September 13, 1759 battle between French and British forces that ended in French defeat and the British capture of Quebec.
Battle of Quiberon Bay- November 1759 naval battle that saw a British squadron commanded by Wiliam Hawke destroy a French fleet, making certain the British control of the high seas and disallowing the French to reinforce New France with troops or supplies.
Peace of Paris- The February 10, 1763 peace treaty between Spain, France, and Great Britain that ended the French and Indian War and declared British victory.
Flashcards
Annotated Bibliography
Anderson, Fred. A People’s Army: Massachusetts Soldiers & Society in the Seven Years’ War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
Fred Anderson examines the social and cultural context that defined the nature of military service for Massachusetts militiamen in the Seven Years War (which in America, lasted from 1754 to 1763). He notes the importance of civilian concerns for these men, contrasting them against the background and experiences of British professional soldiers.
Anderson, Fred. The War that Made America: A Short History of the French & Indian War. New York: Penguin Books, 2005.
One of the best short histories of the French and Indian War, Fred Anderson’s work is a condensed narrative of his much larger Crucible of War. While placing the war within a larger global context, Anderson also gives attention to Indian perspectives and motivations, and highlights how the war set the stage for the American Revolution.
Crane, Verner. The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732. New Introduction by Steven C. Hahn. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004.
Originally published in 1928, The Southern Frontier was an attempt to refocus attention from the northern English colonies (and their conflicts with New France) to those in the American southeast, particularly the Carolinas. Crane examines settlers’ first contact with Native Americans, wars with them, and imperial tensions with Spanish Florida and the French in the Mississippi River valley
Eames, Steven C. Rustic Warriors: Warfare and the Provincial Soldier on the New England Frontier, 1689-48. New York: New York University Press, 2011.
Rustic Warriors challenges historical depictions of New England provincial soldiers as incompetent and disorganized. Focusing on the period of King William’s War to King George’s War, Eames argues that New Englanders adopted a mix of European and native approaches to warfare to better fight Indian foes who threatened frontier settlements.
Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670 – 1717. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
This work examines relations between Native Americans and settlers, specifically the rise and demise of the slave raiding system that fed South Carolina’s economy between the 1670s and the Yamasee War. Stronger native groups raided weaker neighbors, selling captives into slavery in exchange for trade goods. Gallay explains how these practices broke down and engulfed Carolina itself in war by 1715, after which the Indian slave trade died out.
Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making On the Frontier. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
John Grenier’s book studies what eighteenth century writers knew as petite guerre, but what we today know by several terms: irregular, guerrilla, partisan, unconventional, low-intensity conflict, special operations, etc. Grenier asserts the “first” American way of war did not revolve around regular armies and professional troops. Rather, it adopted aspects of Indian warfare, and in an effort to defeat native enemies, focused on destroying villages and fields, and killing and intimidating noncombatant populations.
Haefeli, Evan, and Kevin Sweeney. Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003.
Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney examine the French and Indian raid on the English settlement of Deerfield, Massachusetts, in which they captured more than 100 men, women, and children captive. In doing so, they detail the worldviews and perspectives of both captors and captives, and demonstrate the broader social and cultural significance of captive taking in the American northeast during the colonial period.
Ivers, Larry E. This Torrent of Indians: War on the Southern Frontier, 1715–1728. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2016.
Larry Ivers has written the most detailed account of the Yamasee War (1715-1717), and the confrontations that followed it, in recent years.
Leach, Douglas Edward. Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607-1763. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
Arms for Empire is a detailed narrative of British and colonial military campaigns from 1607 to 1763. It offers little social, cultural, or political analysis, and tends to focus more on conventional military operations.
Starkey, Armstrong. European and Native American Warfare, 1675-1815. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
Starkey contrasts native and Western approaches to warfare during conflicts in the indicated period, primarily those in the northeast portion of North America. Noting how Indians adopted European technology, he asserts that the French adapted well to native approaches to warfare, while the British did not.
Steele, Ian K. Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the "Massacre." New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Betrayals is a definitive account of the violence outside Fort William Henry on 10 August 1757, when the British and American troops, along with camp followers, were leaving the post after its surrender to the French. Steele’s analysis demonstrates that episode stemmed from differing European and Indian cultural practices in war, and provides the best estimate for the actual number of fatalities, and the fates of the captured.
Expanded Bibliography
Anderson, Fred. A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years' War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
-------------------- Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2000.
Black, Jeremy. Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011.
Borneman, Walter R. The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America. New York: Harper Collins, 2006.
Calloway, Colin G. The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Dowd, Gregory Evans. War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations & the British Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988.
Kennett, Lee B. The French Armies in the Seven Years' War: A Study in Military Organization and Administration. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1967.
Laramie, Michael G. King William's War: The First Contest for North America, 1689–1697. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2017.
------------------------- Queen Anne's War: The Second Contest for North America, 1702–1713. Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2021.
Lee, Wayne. Barbarians and Brothers: Anglo-American Warfare, 1500–1865. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Melvoin, Richard I. New England Outpost: War and Society in Colonial Deerfield. New York: Norton, 1989.
Peckham, Howard Henry. The Colonial Wars, 1689–1762. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008.
Titus, James. The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1991.
Annotated Weblinks
Site: National Humanities Center Resource Toolbox
URL:http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/becomingamer/american/text1/europeancompetition.pdf
Description: The National Humanities Center’s Becoming American: The British Atlantic Colonies, 1690-1763 is a useful project for understanding the time period. This link will take you to a piece the Center did titled “European Competition for North American: The British & American Colonial Perspective.” It provides quotes from reports, essays, poems, and sermons on a number of topics relating to British and American competition for dominance in North America.
Site: University of Connecticut Library Colonial Connecticut Records, 1636-1776
URL: https://lib.dev.uconn.edu/find/collections/unique-collections/public-records-of-the-colony-of-connecticut-1636-1776/
Description: An extremely useful resource for research, this link will take you to all of the public records of Connecticut during its colonial period.
Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Early Recognized Treaties with American Indian Nations
URL: http://earlytreaties.unl.edu/
Description: Useful for primary source research, this University of Nebraska-Lincoln website has the text for seven important treaties between the British, and later Americans, with Indian nations, stretching between 1702 and 1805.
Site: Raid On Deerfield: The Many Stories of 1704
URL: https://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/7361/
Description: Maintained by the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, this site offers a thorough examination of the 1704 raid on Deerfield, exploring the histories and perspectives of the different groups involved, and how the incident reflected circumstances in this region of the North American borderlands.
Site: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Electronic Texts in American Studies
URL: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/33/
Description: Much has been written about the 21 year-old major in the Virginia militia who inadvertently sparked the French and Indian War, but if you want to know about it from the future president’s perspective, click this link and read The Journal of Major George Washington.
Site: Library of Congress Internet Archive
URL: http://archive.org/details/lukegridleysdiar00grid
Description: This link will take you to an e-copy version of a first-hand account of a soldier who fought in the French and Indian War. Titled Luke Gridley's diary of 1757 while in service in the French and Indian war, the journal will give you a unique perspective of what the war looked like from a soldier’s perspective.
Site: Military Heritage, The Seven Years War Website
URL: http://www.militaryheritage.com/7yrswar.htm
Description: A fairly broad website with a lot of useful articles and resources, Military Heritage’s The Seven Years War Website is a good search tool for information on battles and units.
Site: Military Heritage, A Soldier's Account of the Campaign on Quebec, 1759
URL: http://www.militaryheritage.com/quebec1.htm
Description: This link will take you to a first-hand account by a sergeant major of the 40th Regiment’s Grenadiers and his experiences during the campaign on Quebec in 1759.
Site: PBS’s The War that Made America Readings and Resources Page
URL: https://www.pbs.org/thewarthatmadeamerica/
Description: This link will take you to the web site for the PBS series, The War that Made America. Provided are useful online resources and educator resources about the French and Indian War.