Summary
Chapter 5 analyzes the period between the War of 1812 and up through the American Civil War, though the latter conflict itself is addressed in the next two chapters. It explains the steps American leaders took to improve the country’s military institutions after the failures in the War of 1812. In the interim, the expanding frontier continued to absorb the regular U.S. Army’s attention. Although conflicts with native peoples were not new, after 1830 President Andrew Jackson’s policy of Indian Removal sparked wars and forced migrations. The U.S. Army, assisted by militia, had been crucial for implementing federal policy in the Wars of Indians Removal and the Trail of Tears. As for the U.S. Navy, it maintained a modest fleet of smaller-to-medium sized vessels to protect American shipping and advance national interests in seas around the world.
The most prominent conflict between 1815 and the Civil War was the Mexican War of 1846-48. U.S. forces demonstrated improved leadership, organization and planning, enough to deliver what had not been attained in the War of 1812: a clear victory that achieved the U.S. government’s political goals. After the Mexican War, the U.S. Army returned to its regular peacetime duties, building and garrisoning outposts on the Great Plains and in far western territories of the Mexican Cession and the Pacific Northwest. By that time, the vast majority of Indians residing east of the Mississippi River after the War of 1812 had been removed for white settlement.
In this chapter, students will learn about the military reforms that followed the War of 1812. Central to explaining the effects of military reforms in this period is a discussion of the experiences of antebellum soldiers and sailors. Students will also learn about the Wars of Indian Removal. This chapter will also explain the U.S. military’s performance in the Mexican War, as well as highlight the Indians Wars that occurred between 1848 and the end of the Civil War in 1865.
Glossary
Winfield Scott- (1786-1866), An American army general known for his effective military instruction and ability. Scott was an American military institution, fighting in multiple wars including the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, Black Hawk’s War, the Second Seminole War, and the Civil War.
Reduction Act of 1821- Reduced the U.S. Army from 12,000 personnel, mostly enlisted men, down to 6,000. The Act is better known, however, for Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun’s idea of the expansible army.
John C. Calhoun- (1782-1850), Secretary of war during James Monroe’s presidency and the architect of the expansible army that was implemented in the Reduction Act of 1821.
expansible army- Part of the Reduction Act of 1821, and in response to the poor performance of the U.S. military during the War of 1812, it was Secretary of War John C. Calhoun’s idea that in peacetime the army would maintain a capable officer corps but downsize the number of soldiers. In war, the country would quickly recruit and train enlistees for military service.
United States Military Academy- An American service academy founded in 1802 in West Point, New York. After the poor performance of the U.S. military in the War of 1812, West Point became dedicated to fostering military professionalism beginning with the reforms of Superintendent Sylvanus Thayer.
Sylvanus Thayer- (1785-1872), Considered the “father” of West Point, the United States Military Academy. His reforms changed the institution from a largely engineering school to a promoter of military professionalism.
Andrew Jackson- (1767-1845), An accomplished military leader during the War of 1812, where he became a hero during the Battle of New Orleans, as well as The Creek War, and the First Seminole War. Jackson went on to become the seventh president of the United States.
First Seminole War- An 1817-1818 conflict perpetrated by Andrew Jackson and his U.S. forces in Florida. In the name of denying aid to the Seminole Indians, Jackson marched into Spanish Florida and captured two Spanish forts, executing two Britons he accused of supplying the Seminole Indians.
Transcontinental Treaty- Negotiated in 1819 between the United States and Spain and ratified in 1821, it ceded all of Florida to the United States.
Cherokees- A Native American group, considered by the Americans to be one of the most assimilated of the five “civilized tribes” because they had adopted white American lifestyles. Attempts by Georgia to expel the Cherokee led to the Indian Removal Act of 1830.
Seminoles- Native American group of various native peoples traditionally settled in Florida. Attempts by the United States government to seize their lands turned bloody in the Seminole Wars of the nineteenth-century.
Indian Removal Act of 1830- Passed during the Andrew Jackson presidency, the policy paid native groups to abandon their traditional homelands in the American southeast and move west of the Mississippi to new lands provided by the federal government.
Wars of Indian Removal- A period of conflict and forced migration in the early nineteenth-century in the American southeast when the United States government attempted to relocate Native American tribes from their traditional homelands.
Black Hawk’s War- A running conflict on the American frontier in 1832 between American militia and regular troops against Chief Black Hawk and his Sauk people attempting to return to their traditional homeland in northern Illinois. Language barriers, misunderstandings, and wary Americans led to the death of most of Black Hawk’s people and the chief’s capture.
Second Seminole War- Sometimes called the Florida War. Stemming from Andrew Jackson’s Indian removal policies, the conflict lasted from 1835 to 1842 and saw the United States fighting an unpopular war to remove the Seminoles from Florida.
Treaty of Payne’s Landing- An 1832 agreement between the Seminoles and the United States that the Seminoles would abandon Florida and move west of the Mississippi, leading ultimately to the Second Seminole War.
Osceola- (1804-1838), Warrior leader of a band of Seminoles who fought Americans during the Second Seminole War, captured by General Thomas Jesup and died in captivity.
Thomas Jesup- (1788-1860), American officer and in command of U.S. troops in Florida during the Second Seminole War, responsible for capturing the Seminole warrior Osceola under arguably deceitful circumstances.
Zachary Taylor- (1784-1850), An American military officer who fought in multiple conflicts, including War of 1812, Black Hawk’s War, and the Second Seminole War (including commanding troops at that war’s biggest engagement, the Battle of Okeechobee), and during the Mexican-American War. Taylor went on to become the twelfth president of the United States.
Battle of Lake Okeechobee- The largest engagement of the Second Seminole War on December 25, 1837 between American troops and outnumbered Seminole warriors.
Second Creek War- Sometimes called the Creek War, white speculators defrauded Creeks of their land titles and squatters settled what was rightfully Creek territory in Alabama. Tensions erupted in 1836, precipitating U.S. military intervention until 1837 when most of the Creeks migrated away.
Trail of Tears- the forced relocation of Cherokees and other native groups from the southeast United States to Oklahoma throughout the bitter winter of 1838-1839, claiming anywhere from 4,000 to 8,000 lives.
Treaty of New Echota- An 1835 agreement between the U.S. government and Cherokee that the native peoples would abandon their lands in parts of North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and Alabama for western territories in exchange for monetary compensation. It became the basis for the Trail of Tears, or the forced relocation west during the winter of 1838-1839.
Chief John Ross- (1790-1866), The leader of the Cherokee people during the Trail of Tears.
Algerian War/Second Barbary War- A naval war between the United States and Barbary States in 1815 after Barbary corsairs had once again begun targeting U.S. shipping. A show of force brought the pirates to terms and the James Madison administration began a permanent naval presence in the Mediterranean.
Matthew C. Perry- (1794-1858), A U.S. naval officer who opened up American trade with Japan in 1853-1854; also known for helping to modernize the U.S. navy by embracing new technology.
James K. Polk- (1795-1849), The eleventh president of the United States, noted proponent of American expansion, and commander-in-chief during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848).
Antonio López de Santa Anna- (1794-1876), Mexican military officer and politician who was an eleven-time president of Mexico, and leader of the country during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War, conflicts during both of which he commanded an army.
Rio Grande River- A river flowing from Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico, constituting the natural border between Texas and Mexico and the point of departure for American forces to invade Mexico during the Mexican-American War.
Battle of Palo Alto- One of the first Mexican-War engagements in Texas on May 8, 1846 where Zachary Taylor employed superior artillery to repulse Mexican cavalry charges, inflicting heavy casualties while suffering relatively few in return.
Battle of Resaca de la Palma- A Mexican-War engagement taking place one day after the Battle of Palo Alto on May 9, 1846. An American victory by Zachary Taylor stirred support in Washington D.C. to enact war measures.
Doniphan’s March- In 1846-1847, a Mexican-American War military movement by over 850 mounted volunteers from Missouri led by U.S. commander in New Mexico, Alexander Doniphan. After crossing 3,500 miles of desert and mountains and fighting two engagements, the force occupied Chihuahua.
Battle of Monterrey- An American victory during the Mexican-American War fought between September 20 to 24, 1846, with most of the clashes being urban fighting, requiring house-clearing operations.
Vera Cruz Campaign- A Mexican-American War-ending campaign in March 1847 beginning with the first amphibious invasion by U.S. forces at Vera Cruz. An American march hundreds of miles inland toward Mexico City led to the capture of the capital.
Battle of Buena Vista- A Mexican-American War engagement fought between February 22-23, 1847 in northern Mexico. Despite large numbers of desertions, it was an impressive tactical victory for outnumbered an inexperienced Americans led by Zachary Taylor against Santa Anna.
Battle of Cerro Gordo- An April 18, 1847 battle during the Mexican-American War during the Vera Cruz Campaign and an American victory over Santa Anna.
Battles of Contreras & Churubusco- Two linked battles of the Mexican-American War fought on August 19-20, 1847 outside of Mexico City, constituting some of the last fighting of the war, as well as the bloodiest for the victorious Americans.
Battle of Chapultepec- A Mexican-American War U.S. victory fought between September 12-13, 1847 where American forces under Winfield Scott attacked Chapultepec, a hill-top mansion that housed the Mexican military academy, opening up Mexico City for an American occupation.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo- The Mexican-American War-ending agreement ratified by both governments by May 1848. It called for the Mexican government to pay the United States $15 million, set the Rio Grande as the Texas border, and handed over Mexico’s northernmost territories in the Mexican Cession.
Mexican Cession- The handover of Mexico’s northern territories to the United States – California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona – as agreed upon in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War in 1848.
Filibustering Expeditions – Private military expeditions organized and led by Americans which sought to conquer parts of Latin America, such as William Walker’s brief conquest of Nicaragua (1855-57).
Sand Creek Massacre – One of the bloodiest and most brutal attacks against a Native American group, in which Colorado militia killed between 130 and 200 mostly women and children of the Cheyenne and Arapahoe tribes in 1864.
Flashcards
Annotated Bibliography
Ball, Durwood. Army Regulars on the Western Frontier, 1848–1861. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
Durwood Ball focuses specifically on the challenges, duties, and responsibilities of U.S. Army units stationed in the western borderlands between the Mexican War and the American Civil war.
Bauer, K. Jack. The Mexican War, 1846-48. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1974.
Though now a somewhat older work, Bauer’s book still offers one of the most detailed and comprehensive accounts of U.S. military operations in the Mexican War.
Clary, David A. Eagles and Empire: The United States, Mexico, and the Struggle for a Continent. New York: Bantam Books, 2009.
Eagles and Empire addresses both U.S. and Mexican perspectives in this account of the two countries’ interactions. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, David Clary discusses developments such as the Texas Revolution before devoting the bulk of the narrative to the Mexican War of 1846-48, addressing political, military and social topics.
Coffman, Edward M. The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784-1898. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
The best social history of the U.S. Army between the end of the Revolution to the Spanish-American War. The Old Army analyzes such topics as enlistment, training, relationships between officers and troops, discipline, life on frontier posts, and professionalism.
Ellisor, John. The Second Creek War: Interethnic Conflict and Collusion on a Collapsing Frontier. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010.
John Ellisor has written the only recent, comprehensive study of the Second Creek War. While recounting the causes and extent of hostilities, the book also illustrates the social and ethnic complexity of the Old Southwest, including how some blacks and whites supported the Creeks in their efforts to resist removal.
Jung, Patrick J. The Black Hawk War of 1832. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
In addition to being narrative of the Black Hawk War, Jung situates the conflict in the context of previous Indian efforts to resist white expansion in the Old Northwest.
Leeman, William P. The Long Road to Annapolis: The Founding of the Naval Academy and the Emerging American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
William Leeman’s book traces the social, political, and cultural factors in the early republic and antebellum periods that initially inhibited, and then later enabled, the creation of the U.S. Naval Academy
May, Robert E. Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Robert May has written perhaps the best recent, single-volume work on the private military adventurers known as filibusters. Though filibustering expeditions had occurred previously, they were particularly problematic for Latin America in the decade after the Mexican-American War. Assessing their popularity among expansionist-minded elements of the U.S., May also notes the federal government’s inability to check them, their contributions to the sectional crisis, and the problems they generated for U.S. foreign policy.
Missall, John and Mary Lou Missall. The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.
This book provides a convenient overview of the three Seminole Wars that occurred between 1817 and 1858 and events in between them, though it does not incorporate some recent scholarship.
Prucha, Francis Paul. The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier: 1783-1846. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1969.
Though dated, Sword of the Republic offers an overview of U.S. Army’s purpose and mission on the western frontiers from the Revolution to the Mexican War. While describing its limitations and failures, Prucha also illustrates the army’s central role in asserting U.S. sovereignty and federal authority in the territories.
Schroeder, John H. Matthew Calbraith Perry: Antebellum Sailor and Diplomat. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2001.
This book is a detailed biography of Matthew C. Perry, the most distinguished American naval officer of the early the nineteenth century. Best known for leading the expeditions that opened Japan to U.S. commerce in the 1850s, Schroeder addresses Perry’s combat experiences – including the War of 1812 and the Mexican-American War, as well as actions against Caribbean pirates and African slavers – and efforts to promote organizational and technological reforms. In doing so, the book also provides insight into the antebellum U.S. Navy and American society of the era.
Skelton, William B. An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784-1861. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1992.
William Skelton’s book is a seminal treatment on the early U.S. army. He argues that the officer corps began to become professional only after the War of 1812, prior to which political issues and uncertainly prevented men from considering officership as a career. Skelton looks at the institutions and factors that enabled army officers to adopt professional attitudes, examining the role of the United States Military Academy, frontier service, and the shared values and attitudes.
Valle, James E. Rocks and Shoals: Naval Discipline in the Age of Fighting Sail. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute press, 1980.
Rocks and Shoals addresses order and discipline in the antebellum U.S. Navy, illustrating the strict and violent nature of service aboard its ships at sea. Complete with anecdotes about everyday life, James Valle’s work is a good social history that examines interactions and attitudes among officers and sailors.
Watson, Samuel J. Jackson’s Sword: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1810–1821. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2012.
In this first book of his two-volume study, Samuel Watson assesses how officers developed a more professional ethos as they tried to enforce national policies in borderlands regions during the War of 1812 and its immediate aftermath. Watson includes factors such as institutional instability, civil-military relations, and regional preferences that affected those officers serving in the U.S. Army in Florida, in Louisiana, and along the Missouri River.
Watson, Samuel J. Peacekeepers and Conquerors: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1821–1846. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013.
______In this second book of his two-volume study, Samuel Watson picks up in 1821 and tracks the increasingly professional nature of the U.S. Army through to the start of the Mexican War. After graduating from the U.S. Military Academy, newly commissioned officers served on the frontier and propelled the nation’s expansion westward into the Pacific Northwest, Florida, and the Southwest. This brought the U.S. Army into confrontations with Great Britain, Mexico, and the Native American tribes. This last group suffered grievously from the United States push westward.
Winders, Richard Bruce. Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997.
Winders examines the Mexican War from the soldier’s perspective. While addressing army organization and causes of the war, the book examines the men who served, both U.S. Army regulars and volunteers, their experiences during the conflicts, and the nature and quality of leadership.
Expanded Bibliography
Ball, Durwood. Army Regulars on the Western Frontier, 1848–1861. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
Bauer, K. Jack. Surfboats and Horse Marines: U.S. Naval Operations in the Mexican War, 1846–48. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute, 1969.
Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985.
Brack, Gene M. Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821–1846: An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975.
Connor, Seymour V. North America Divided: The Mexican War, 1846–1848. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Eby, Cecil D. “That Disgraceful Affair,” the Black Hawk War. New York: Norton, 1973.
Engstrand, Iris Wilson. Culture y Cultura: Consequences of the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848. Los Angeles: Autry Museum of Western Heritage, 1998.
Faulk, Odie B., and Joseph A. Stout, Jr., eds. The Mexican War: Changing Interpretations. Chicago: Sage Books, 1973.
Francaviglia, Richard V., and Douglas W. Richmond, eds. Dueling Eagles: Reinterpreting the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 2000.
Foos, Paul W. A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict during the Mexican-American War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
Hatch, Thom. Osceola and the Great Seminole War: A Struggle for Justice and Freedom. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012.
Johannsen, Robert Walter. To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998.
Karsten, Peter. Naval Aristocracy: The Golden Age of Annapolis and the Emergence of Modern American Navalism. New York: Free Press, 1972.
Leeman, William P. The Long Road to Annapolis: The Founding of the Naval Academy and the Emerging American Republic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
Lewis, Felice Flanery. Trailing Clouds of Glory: Zachary Taylor’s Mexican Campaign and His Emerging Civil War Leaders. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010.
Mahon, John K. History of the Second Seminole War, 1835–1842. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1967.
Nichols, Roger L. Black Hawk: And the Warrior’s Path. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1992.
Remini, Robert Vincent. Andrew Jackson & His Indian Wars. New York: Viking, 2001.
Schroeder, John H. Shaping a Maritime Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of the American Navy, 1829–1861. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985.
Tate, Michael L. The Frontier Army in the Settlement of the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Watson, Samuel J. Peacekeepers and Conquerors: The Army Officer Corps on the American Frontier, 1821–1846. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013.
Annotated Weblinks
Site: Florida Department of State
URL: http://dos.myflorida.com/library-archives/research/explore-our-resources/florida-history-culture-and-heritage/seminole-wars/
Description: This site provides a list of primary source collections, and a bibliography of secondary sources, that address the Seminole Wars.
Site: JohnHorse.com
URL: http://www.johnhorse.com/
Description: Go to this website to learn about the extremely complicated nature of the Seminole Wars and the policy of Indian Removal, all told through a historical figure who was seemingly in the middle of many events during this difficult era in American history, John Horse.
Site: Library of Congress, Primary Documents in American History: Indian Removal Act
URL: https://guides.loc.gov/indian-removal-act
Description: Follow this link to visit the Library of Congress’s online exhibit about the Indian Removal Act of 1830. There you will not only find the text of the act but also contemporary newspaper stories, maps, links to other web sites, and a selected bibliography.
Site: National Park Service, Trail of Tears: National Historic Trail
URL: http://www.nps.gov/trte/index.htm
Description: Learn more about the result of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 by visiting the National Park Service’s Trail of Tears website here.
Site: Wisconsin Historical Society, Historic Diaries: Black Hawk War Documents
URL: https://www.wisconsinhistory.org/turningpoints/tp-012/
Description: To read diaries from participants in the Black Hawk War, as well as other resources, follow this link to an exhibit from the Wisconsin Historical Society.
Site: Brown University Library Center, Perry in Japan: a visual history
URL: http://library.brown.edu/cds/perry/index.html
Description: If curious about Commodore Matthew C. Perry expedition to Japan in 1854, visit this project from Brown University.
Site: A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War
URL: http://library.uta.edu/usmexicowar/
Description: A joint project between the Center for Greater Southwestern Studies and the Library at the University of Texas at Arlington, A Continent Divided is a great place to start if you are searching for essays, primary sources, images, and maps related to the Mexican-American War.
Site: NachesTrail.org, Diary of the Yakima Indian War
URL: http://www.nachestrail.org/media/pdf/DELACY%20Indian%20War%20reports%201856.pdf
Description: This link will take you to diary belonging to Captain W.W. De Lacy during the Yakima Indian War in 1856. It provides insight into U.S. Army operations in the Washington territory after a confederation of three tribes attempted to repel white settlers in spring 1856.