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Chapter 1: Introduction
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 2–19)
What is psychology? Psychology is the science devoted to understanding human (and social) behavior. This chapter gives an overview of the different approaches taken in psychology. As with most sciences, psychology involves carrying out controlled experiments.
This chapter reviews the basics of collecting objective data, replicating findings, testing theoretical predictions, falsifiability of predictions, and use of a paradigm. It also considers the cultural differences that should be taken into account when conducting studies. Psychology is not just common sense. Common sense doesn't provide a coherent account of human behavior and nonpsychologists' predictions about human behavior are frequently disconfirmed.
Chapter 2: Historical and Conceptual Issues
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 22–47)
This chapter is divided into two major sections.
The first is concerned with the history of psychology. It focuses on five major approaches to psychology that have been developed over the past century or so: psychodynamic, behaviorism, humanism, cognitive psychology, and evolutionary psychology. The order in which these approaches are considered reflects the historical order in which they were developed.
The second major section is devoted to major conceptual issues and debates in psychology.
Chapter 3: Human Motivation
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 55–75)
Motivation is essential for life because it is a process or drive that gets us going—it starts, guides, supports, and finally stops every goal-directed behavior we have. Need theories assume that our needs motivate us, and that different needs are important at different times. Maslow's hierarchical needs theory is the best-known need theory, and has a lot of research evidence.
The human sex drive is also powerful, and is run by the brain. Sexual reproduction has biological costs but considerable rewards; it is influenced by the sex hormones, which are common to both males and females. The evolutionary approach to sexual behavior gives insights into the differing motivations of men and women in, for instance, mate choice, and is supported by cross-cultural studies. Some theorists have suggested that sexual behavior has varied plasticity, which is sex-linked.
Work and performance are also dependent on motivation, among other factors, and this motivation can be affected by personality.
Chapter 4: Emotion, Stress, and Coping
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 77–101)
What actually is emotion? This chapter looks at theories and research investigating and trying to explain emotions. Emotions play a central role in our lives. Different models of how many human emotions exist are described, with relevant research, and studies on facial expressions are discussed. Stress is a fairly modern concept and the stress response involves the brain, endocrine, and autonomic systems. Many negative effects of stress are associated with illness and research into stress has had several focuses, such as occupational stress, life events, hassles, and individual differences in people's responses. How stress causes illness is beginning to be understood. There are many ways of coping with stress, some personal and some interventional; there are also gender differences. Traditional and core family coping strategies are also discussed.
Chapter 5: States of Awareness
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 102–125)
There are various definitions of consciousness, and alternative ways of looking at this concept. It could be the experience of something; it could be private, made up of several sensory inputs giving information about products rather than processes, and it is surely dynamic. There is mixed evidence for whether consciousness is unitary or not. There are also the rhythms and cycles that affect the body, such as the different states of awareness every day.
Sleep is a common behavior with a pattern. Electroencephalogram traces show there to be four stages of slow-wave sleep and one stage of rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep; the five stages of sleep form a 90-minute ultradian rhythm. Dreaming occurs in both REM and slow-wave sleep. Research has looked for how these rhythms are controlled. Important studies have shown the stages of sleep and the effects of sleep deprivation. Other research has studied dreaming and the theories of why we sleep and why we dream.
Chapter 6: Visual Perception and Attention
(Fundamentals Of Psychology pp. 132–165)
Visual perception is of enormous importance in our everyday lives. Therefore, far more of our cortex is devoted to vision than to any other sensory modality. We now have a detailed understanding of our visual system and how our visual perceptual processes are organized by our brain. Research has shown us that different parts of our brain and different perceptual processes perform specific functions. Research has also suggested that our visual perceptual system might not be perfectly accurate, as it can be fooled by various visual illusions. It is sufficiently accurate, however, to allow us to move successfully around the environment.
The concept of attention can mean several different things. For example, it can sometimes mean the same thing as concentration, or it can refer to our ability to select sensory stimuli for analysis. The psychological study of attention distinguishes between focused attention and divided attention. By studying focused attention, using shadowing tasks and dichotic listening tasks, we can learn more about our attentional system's selection process and what happens to the stimuli we don't select. By studying divided attention or multitasking, using dual-task studies, we can learn more about the system's processing mechanisms and limitations.
Much of what we now know about human attention has come from the findings of laboratory experiments. These findings have given us a valuable insight into the workings of our attentional mechanisms but, as with all human behavior, we must be careful to note the differences between behavior observed in the laboratory environment and that which takes place in the context of everyday life.
Chapter 7: Conditioning and Learning
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 167–191)
The ability to learn is not uniquely human. Many of the early studies of learning found that animals are able to learn to perform relatively complex tasks through classical and operant conditioning. Human behavior can also be controlled by conditioning, and conditioning principles have been applied to the treatment of phobias and addictions. However, conditioning is not the only way in which we learn. Much of what we learn in our everyday lives is through observational learning, i.e., observing the behavior of others. This is a very efficient way of learning as it means that we don't have to experience behavior in order to perform it, as the behaviorists would have us believe.
There is also evidence for implicit learning, which is learning in the absence of explicit knowledge or awareness. Many of the skills we have, however, have been acquired over a long period of time, particularly if we have become expert at a particular skill, either cognitive or perceptual-motor.
Researchers have therefore been interested in examining how such expertise develops and what factors are necessary to become an expert in a particular field. One of the most controversial questions is whether or not innate talent or ability is of particular importance in the development of expertise.
Chapter 8: Human Memory
(Fundamentals Of Psychology pp. 192–215)
Memory is an incredibly important human ability. It contains vital knowledge without which we would be unable to function in the real world. Because of the richness of memory and the amount and variety of information stored in it, many researchers have theorized that there are several memory systems, each with different processing characteristics. This chapter explores several of these theories, examining a large amount of empirical evidence.
Although such empirical studies are extremely important in the formulation of theory, they can tell us little about everyday memory. Research into everyday memory has produced some interesting findings, suggesting that human memory is far from infallible. Such findings have important implications in terms of recovered memories and eyewitness testimony; these implications are discussed here.
Chapter 9: Thinking: Problem Solving and Decision Making
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 216–235)
Thinking involves higher-level cognitive processes and is involved in virtually everything we do. This chapter examines thinking with respect to several different tasks and human abilities, all of which rely on the same cognitive system. However, there are distinctions between such tasks and abilities. For example, problem solving involves generating various possibilities and then choosing among them, whereas in decision making the possibilities are presented, and the task only involves choosing one of them. The research in this area is attempting to explain humans' underlying performance of cognitive tasks. Much of it therefore focuses on the errors we make when performing such tasks, because understanding how a system breaks down helps us to understand the system itself.
Chapter 10: Language
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 236–261)
In our everyday lives, we rely heavily on language to interact in the social world. This chapter examines the processes involved in speech perception and reading.
Language usually takes place in a social context and so it is also important to study the processes involved in speech production. Studying brain-damaged patients with language impairments has helped to further our understanding of such processes and has led to the categorization of various speech disorders. However, such categorization is not always useful. There are four main language skills: reading; listening to speech; speaking; and writing. This chapter is concerned with three of these skills; writing is omitted.
Weblink: A database of web links to language and linguistic sites
Chapter 11: Intelligence
Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 266–285)
Intelligence is thought to be one of the key ways in which humans differ from one another. However, the topic of intelligence has led to some ferocious debates within psychology. These debates have focused on what psychologists understand by the term "intelligence". Does it describe a general ability or a range of abilities? Whereas some psychologists focus on academic abilities such as arithmetical ability, vocabulary, and spatial ability, others want the term to include creativity and [HKT]emotional intelligence.
Given the difficulties in defining intelligence, it follows that there will be some debate as to whether intelligence can actually be measured, and—if it can—what use society should make of such a measure.
The topic of intelligence has been dogged by the nature–nurture debate, with some psychologists arguing that intelligence is largely determined by genetics, and others maintain that environmental influences clearly influence intelligence.
Chapter 12: What Does Personality Look Like?
(Fundamentals of Psychology. 286–307)
One obvious way of distinguishing between humans is in terms of their personality. Whereas some people can be described as lively and outgoing, others are quieter and more retiring. Psychological research into personality has focused on several factors. Freud was particularly interested in how early childhood contributed to personality development. Other psychologists, like Cattell and H.J. Eysenck, have tried to explore personality in terms of underlying traits.
As with other areas of individual differences, attention has been given to the nature–nurture debate and the ways in which personality can be measured.
Chapter 13: Cognitive Development: Specific abilities
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 312–335)
“Cognition” is the general term used for thinking and information processing of all kinds. Babies develop their cognitive abilities very rapidly after birth; there is even evidence of some development occurring in the womb. Recent improvements in research methodology have shown more clearly exactly what they are capable of at very early ages, allowing us to see how this development occurs and how it may be facilitated.
This chapter explores key areas of this research. Perceptual development is about the ability to make sense of the stimulation we receive from the world around us—learning to recognize the mother's face, for example. Memory is another cognitive skill that shows early changes, resulting in improved strategies and better memory as we mature. Our ability to use language to communicate and think develops in stages that are apparently universal. Finally, our ability to understand and predict the thoughts of others (theory of mind) is a cognitive skill with important social implications; its development has been investigated in normally developing and autistic children.
Chapter 14: Theories of Cognitive Development
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 336–353)
This chapter discusses three theoretical approaches to cognitive development in general (as opposed to the specific abilities discussed in Chapter 13). The ways that thinking change as we get older, the influences on development, and the processes involved are the focus of attention. Theories discussed in this chapter include Piaget's theory, Vygotsky's theory, and Siegler's theory (the overlapping waves model). Each theory is evaluated, and the implications for education discussed.
Chapter 15: Social Development in Everyday Life
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 354–375)
As children grow up, they learn how to function in society from other people. This involves an increasing awareness of how they are seen by others and how to control their own behavior to make it more acceptable to others. Cognitive and learning processes based on input from others thus play a part in the development of the self, the appropriate gender role, the regulation of antisocial and promotion of prosocial behavior, and the acquisition of morality.
Chapter 16: Attachments and Friendships
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 376–399)
This chapter is about how the early relationships children have with parents, carers, siblings, and peers can affect their subsequent development in a variety of ways. The presence, absence, and nature of these relationships can be examined to see how influential they are. The extent to which genetic and cultural influences are also at work must be taken into account, as you will see.
Chapter 17: Social Cognition
(Fundamentals Of Psychology pp. 404–427)
Social psychology takes a broad look at the changes in our behavior when we are with other people. Relationships and group membership are important determinants of the way we feel about others and ourselves. The cognitive approach argues that it is specifically the way that we think about ourselves and other people that is responsible for our behavior.
Chapter 18: Social Behavior and Relationships
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 428–453)
This chapter is about how we get on with the people with whom we are in close proximity. We might choose to help them, for example, or we might be hostile to them. Some might become friends or partners, and research has been carried out to find out who we are likely to choose for these roles. Sometimes these relationships break down, and the reasons for this have also been studied.
Chapter 19: Group Processes
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 454–483)
When people are in groups their behavior differs in a variety of ways from that shown when they are alone. They perform differently on tasks carried out with others, and behave differently when in crowds. They may be influenced by others to conform to group norms or to obey a leader.
Chapter 20: Intergroup Processes
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 484–505)
As humans, we are inevitably members of several groups, for example, our family, college, neighborhood, religious group, protest group, or sporting club. Belonging to a group contributes to how we behave, how we perceive ourselves, and—very importantly—how we perceive other groups.
Psychological research into intergroup processes has explored how our social identity is closely linked to the groups to which we belong. These groups may contribute to our self-esteem and our tendency to favor our own group over others. In addition, research has explored how stereotyping contributes to our perception of our own groups and others. By understanding intergroup processes it is hoped that we will gain a better understanding of prejudice and discrimination and psychologists have suggested ways in which prejudice and discrimination may be reduced based on theories of intergroup contact and social identity.
Weblink: A social psychology “portal” giving links to many social psychology-related resources and sites
Chapter 21: Approaches to Abnormality
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 510–521)
Throughout history, there have been examples of human behavior that is so unusual and bizarre, and that causes so much distress, that society has deemed it necessary to try and change this behavior or to isolate the individuals concerned. But what exactly do we mean by "abnormal" behavior? This chapter considers the ways in which we can define abnormality, and whether it is simply a label given to certain individuals who do not conform to the norms of a particular culture.
The etiology (cause) of mental disorders can be considered from various perspectives: as biological, psychological, or social and cultural in origin. This chapter considers some of the major disorders–schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders–and in each case we consider the symptoms and possible causes of each of these conditions.
Chapter 22: Therapeutic Approaches
(Fundamentals of Psychology pp. 522–537)
Given the vast array of symptoms that patients display, it is not surprising that there is a wide variety of therapies available to treat mental disorders. Some of the therapies aim to alter physiology and bodily processes, some concentrate on changing observable behavior, others focus on the modification of faulty and maladaptive thinking, and yet others try to provide people with sufficient insight that they can deal with the issues that are problematic. It is essential, however, to appreciate that although the therapies can conveniently be classified in this way, beliefs, behavior, and physiology are interdependent, so alteration in one is liable to bring about changes in another.
It is obviously necessary to try and ascertain the extent to which therapies are appropriate and effective. This, however, is problematic, as there are so many ways in which effectiveness can be assessed: indeed, there is no universal agreement as to what the ultimate goal of therapy should be. Some practitioners assess it by looking at the extent to which the immediate symptoms have disappeared, some in terms of how attitudes and beliefs have changed, whereas others consider the extent to which people have a better quality of life brought about by increased self-esteem, more satisfying relationships, and greater self-worth. In this chapter we consider all these issues: the types of therapy available and their effectiveness.