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Introduction

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments.

In the Introduction to ‘Perspectives and Themes’ we discover that the discipline of International Relations starts as an endeavour devoted to preventing future wars after the unimaginable horrors of the First World War, 1914-1918. These sites cover some of the major battles and give an insight into why the new discipline was so vital.

  • FIRSTWORLDWAR.COM This is a comprehensive site where you can find analysis of events leading up to the outbreak of the First World War, profiles of significant politicians and military commanders, detailed maps and battle plans and a timeline of events. There is also an interesting selection of propaganda posters providing a greater sense of the political climate of the time. Examples of the work of the ‘war poets’ such as Wilfred Owen, Rupert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon are also included.
  • BBC - World War One This BBC site makes good use of multimedia techniques with archive film and audio recordings, oral histories and animation to illustrate the main military campaigns of the war. There are also readings of some of the work of the poets mentioned above.
  • Channel Four - The First World War Channel Four has produced a ten-part series on the First World War. This site provides the transcript for each episode plus short video extracts.

Nuclear Bombs

Despite the horror of the First World War, new weapons were developed and the horrors of World War Two are no less shocking than those of the first. In the aftermath of the Holocaust of the Jews under the Nazis some directions in post-war IR led to the search for a better world (see particularly Chapter 4) but others concentrated on the need to prevent the further use of atomic and nuclear weapons like those used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

  • Hiroshima Peace Site Unsurprisingly Japan and the city of Hiroshima in particular, have led the way in providing commemorative and educational material with regard to nuclear weapons. This site is divided into three sections. First there is a ‘facts and figures’ section on the attacks of 1945. The second section deals with the following development of nuclear weapons programmes. The third section is more contemporary detailing various peace declarations and ongoing anti-nuclear campaigns. There is also a ‘virtual tour’ facility to view the exhibits at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum.
     
  • Enola Gay The Enola Gay B-29 bomber dropped the first atomic weapon, code named ‘Little Boy’, on Hiroshima on 6th August 1945. This site presents a detailed history of the plane from construction through to museum piece. There is also a more general history of the nuclear weapons programme and the decision to undertake this mission. Also notable is the offer to purchase ‘museum quality’ scale models of the Little Boy bomb via this site.
     
  • aidsmap This site provides a background on how the HIV/AIDS pandemic developed and the current status in the majority of the world’s countries. There are also regular updates from the various conferences and relevant organisation dealing with this issue.
     
  • Terrorism Terrorism is just one issue featured in this site maintained by ‘futurist’ Dr Patrick Dixon. The main theme is one of change, and attempting to predict the implications of such change. There are several dozen videos available via this site highlighting both the nature of change and the manner in which this is impacting on states, individuals and habitats.
     
  • NewScientist.com Here you will find up to date information on environmental trends associated with climate change, pollution, biodiversity, and population growth. There is also a quiz you can take to assess your own contribution to saving or destroying the planet.

Chapter 1

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

Philosophers

After the Historical and context setting nature of the Introduction, the first chapter now begins to introduce to a range of philosophers from history and today.

  • Immanuel Kant This site provides an overview of the metaphysics of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). It sets the philosophical context of debates between empiricists and rationalists. Also includes a section on Kant’s ‘Transcendental Idealism’.
  • The Bentham Project Based at University College London this is the site of the Bentham Project. There is a catalogue of the Bentham papers collection plus a number of links to various aspects of Bentham’s work and critiques.
  • Francis Fukuyama Francis Fukuyama gave rise to an unusual level of academic, and popular, debate following the publication of his ‘End of History and the Last Man’. This site provides a brief overview of his central arguments.
  • John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is famous for his essay ‘On Liberty’. This site summarises both this text and his ‘Principles of Political Economy’.
  • John Maynard Keynes John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) is profiled on this site as ‘among the greatest thinkers of his generation’. He was influential to the extent that of form of economics takes his name.
  • Adam Smith Adam Smith (1723-1790) has been described as ‘the father of modern economic history’. This site outlines Smith’s central text, ‘An enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’. This is widely recognized as the first attempt to adopt a scientific approach to economics.

Ideas

We are also introduced to some key liberal ideas: Free trade and the Bretton Woods System, human rights and structural adjustment programmes amongst others.

  • Bretton Woods Project The Bretton Woods project was created by the Development and Environment Group, a coalition of UK-based NGOs. They produce a bi-monthly digest ‘Bretton Woods Update’ which is accessible via this site. The aim is to monitor the policies and practices of both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
  • Amnesy International - Act now for human rights Amnesty International is one of the leading INGOs dealing with human rights issues. This site both explains the background to its work and provides details on current campaigns. There are also a series of country reports.

Chapter 2

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

Philosophers

  • Niccolo Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) is considered one of the founders of the Realist approach. Key text ‘The Prince’ is discussed here. This site also links to the Philosopher’s Café where the work of many other thinkers is reviewed.
     
  • SunTzu There are numerous sites looking at the seminal work on strategy Sun Tzu’s ‘The Art of War’. This one features a breakdown of the text’s main points on strategy and tactics.
     
  • Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), author of ‘Leviathan’. This site provides a broad historical context for Hobbes’ work and the impact it had with respect to religious beliefs and the philosophical and political climate of his time.
     
  • E.H. Carr E.H. Carr (1892-1982) is best remembered for his work on the interwar period ‘The Twenty Years Crisis’. This site considers this text and other aspects of Carr’s writings.

Ideas

  • Popular Sovereignty Sovereignty remains one of the key principles of international relations. This site covers definitions and the emergence of the concept of sovereignty in relation to social contract writers such as Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
     
  • Conservative Party - Sovereignty This site provides the text of a speech by the Rt Hon Michael Ancram MP, UK Shadow Foreign Secretary. It presents a Conservative Party interpretation of the centrality of national sovereignty to contemporary international relations. This is set within the context of both reactions to the attacks of Sept 11th and also UK relations with EU partners and the broader international community.

Chapter 3

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

Some people might want to claim that class has become less important and that the test of history has proved Marx’s ideas to be outdated or unworkable. However, the ideas of Marx and the insights of various neo-Marxist or Structuralist authors offer important perspectives in understanding the workings of the global capitalist economy.

  • This is Class War This is the site for an organisation which promotes direct action in order to promote greater socio-economic equality. There is also a link to a range of related merchandise.
  • What is Marxism? Here the Socialist Party provides an overview of Marxist thought with reference to works by Marx, Engels, Lenin and Trotsky.
  • Marxism This site gives access to the complete text of the Communist Manifesto and a range of related papers.
  • The Robert Tressell Centre. This is the site of the Robert Tressell Centre. Tressell’s best known work was ‘The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists’, Britain’s most influential working class novel. You can download the whole novel via this site.
  • Development versus Dependency theory The work of Andre Gunder Frank is discussed here with other Dependency writers. Reference to Frank’s term ‘the development of underdevelopment’.
  • Immanuel Wallerstein This New Left Review site features an article by Immanuel Wallerstein entitled ‘New Revolts Against the System’. It considers over a century of socialist and nationalist revolts in relation to the World Social Forum.
  • The IMF as a Political Institution This site features an article by Prof. Peter Willetts, City University, London entitled ‘The IMF as a Political Institution’. It provides an overview of the creation of the IMF through to the reform processes of the 1990s.
  • Notes on the Third World Debt Crisis This article looks at the origins of the debt crisis with views presented from both the international banking community and the indebted states.
  • History of Cuba Richard Roques article presents an annotated chronology of the Cuban revolution.

 

Chapter 4

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

  • Antonio Gramsci Here you will find an overview of Gramsci’s life with a discussion of the merits and flaws of his work.
  • Antonio Gramsci Selections from Gramsci's 'Prison Notebooks' can be accessed here and there is a further link to the International Gramsci Society.
  • Habermas's Critical Theory This is a postgraduate essay entitled ‘Habermas’ Critical Theory: Rationality, Reflexivity and its Limits.’ It covers aspects of argumentation and universal validity claims.
  • German Expressionist Cinema German Expressionism is discussed here with reference to the Paul Wegener’s film ‘The Golem’ (1920). There is a discussion of the various interpretations associated with this film, in particular what level of anti-Semitism, if any, can be attributed to this piece of work.
  • The Frankfurt School Form here you can link to a history of the Frankfurt School and analysis of related writers including, Theodor Adorno, Eric Fromm, Herbert Marcuse and Jurgen Habermas. There is also an unexpected reference to the Spice Girls in relation to the relative merits of aspects popular culture.

Chapter 5

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

  • Pooh-poohing postmodernism Postmodernism faces a stern challenge in the form of Winnie the Pooh and associates. Frederick Crews retired from a position as Emeritus professor of English at University of California, Berkeley. In the text reviewed here he challenges the basic tenets of post-modern approaches.
  • Dimensions of the Postmodern This site describes itself as exploring ‘the cosmic grab-bag of artistic, philosophical and mundane things that all conspire to participate in the post-modern genre.’ In particular it emphasises the rise of the non-linear narrative.
  • Genocide Under the Nazis Some figures here on the Holocaust executions at the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camps. This process is described as ‘industrial killing’.
  • Quentin Tarantino Non-linear narrative has been increasingly popularised through the screenwriting and films of Quentin Tarantino. This site provides information and analysis of his work.
  • Michel Foucault Michel Foucault is seen as a leading post-modern thinker. Here you will find extracts of his work and many of the critiques thereof.
  • The Communist Manifesto Another Socialist Party site dealing with the Communist Manifesto, this one giving more background to the historical context and on the authors.

 

Chapter 6

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

  • Gender-related development This site features a table derived from the UN Human Development Index. It focuses on gender disparity listed by country. The categories covered include infant mortality rate, adult literacy and wealth distribution between males and females.
  • The Suffragettes Here you can find a history of the campaign for votes for women, and profiles of leading activists.
  • Sandino Sunrise This article is taken from a 1986 edition of the New Internationalist and features a review of conditions in Nicaragua at that time. It includes comparisons pre and post-revolution.
  • Women Living Under Muslim Laws Women Living Under Muslim Laws is featured on this site. It covers issues in many states including those of Northern and Central Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia.
  • Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995) This site includes the ‘Toolkit for Women’ which provides information on both the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, and details of previous, related conferences.

 

Chapter 7

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

  • Anthony Giddens Giddens has been particularly influential in Social Theory and related subject areas. This site provides and overview and critique of his work, plus an entertaining section with social theorists as Lego figures.
  • Fahrenheit 9/11 This is a review of the Michael Moore film 'Fahrenheit 9/11'. It covers both the style of film-making employed but also dwells on the audience reaction to a piece of art that contributed to contemporary political debates, both in the US and internationally.

Chapter 8

Quiz

Weblinks

The websites chosen have been chosen as the kinds of site to which you might go to start your enquiries. Deliberately, there has been no attempt to make them ‘fit’ a single political position and you should not take their inclusion either as an endorsement of the site nor as a signal that all the information contained therein is necessarily suitable for inclusion in written assignments. Given the theoretical nature of our book, the factual information available in many of these sites needs to be understood as useful in the context of the chapters in the book.

  • Greenpeace This site covers a full range of environmental issues with background on all the major debates, and opportunities to become actively involved.
  • Friends of the Earth Similar to Greenpeace but this site places more emphasis on campaigning against the structures and institutions that threaten habitats and resources.
  • World Wildlife Fund World Wildlife Fund campaigns for the protection of endangered species and their habitats. This site details their work.
  • Earth First The Earth First organisation is explicitly non-hierarchical and promotes direct action via campaign such as 'Blatant Incitement'. This site list many local actions in addition to discussion the broader, related issues.
  • The Ozone Hole Tour Hosted by the Centre for Atmospheric Science, University of Cambridge this site details the history of the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, its spread and the likely implications of this process.
  • EEA - Ozone depletion The European Environment Agency also has a site devoted to ozone depletion. This one provides information on a range of environmental indicators and related factsheets.
  • Planet Earth - Duran Duran lyrics Lyrics to Duran Duran's song 'Planet Earth'. See also REM's 'It's the End of the World as We Know It' and the Doors' 'Ship of Fools'.
  • Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster Chernobyl is regarded as the worst incident in the nuclear power industry, to date. This site covers both the causes of the accident plus social, economic and environmental consequences.
  • Bhopal Bhopal in India was the site of a major industrial accident at the US –owned Union Carbide plant in November 1984. The immediate and resulting death toll has since risen to approximately 16,000. The International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal covers not just the ongoing claims for compensation from this incident but also monitors contemporary actions of multinational companies operating in the developing world.
  • Three Mile Island Alert This site provides the background and consequences of the 'meltdown' at the Three Mile Island nuclear facility near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, USA in 1979.
  • Sustainable development This site provides a definition of the term 'sustainable development' plus a range of related issues including major conferences and initiatives dealing with this theme.
  • Rene Descartes A brief resume of the work of mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes, (1596-1650). It also provides and insight into events of his time, including the Thirty Years War.
  • Animal Rights This site features links to a wide variety of animal rights groups and covers many of the debates surrounding this issue.
  • Plump Fiction Another example of the Muppets providing scope for alternative readings of contemporary culture.
  • Agenda 21 Agenda 21 was one of the outcomes of the Rio Earth Summit of 1992. This site is one example of where it has been taken up by a local authority.
  • Earth 'will expire by 2050' A rather pessimistic, but not necessarily inaccurate, report on pollution, over-consumption of resources and related environmental degradation.

Conclusions

Quiz

International Relations and Film

One of the comments often made by students of International Relations is that as they become more aware of the complexities of their studies, and the world, they find it increasingly difficult to watch films and television as 'simply' entertainment. This is all to the good as it demonstrates an increasing critical awareness of the 'texts' and narratives they are viewing. As with all telling of tales, such as varying perspectives on international relations, films are presenting particular views of the world. These are determined by the scriptwriter; the director; the performances of the actors and production crew and the size of budget the producers have been able to raise to bring the product to the screen. Not all films are explicitly attempting to make political statements. Some may be dealing with profound issues, such as conflict and war, but might be for their 'entertainment' value rather than promoting any particular ideological message. Yet, despite the creators' intentions, many films are capable of being read in varying ways by audience members that identify themselves with particular characters, worldviews or attitudes. Below is a selection of films relevant to international relations with short commentaries as to how they might be read and associated with the theoretical perspectives described here.

As well as films dealing with themes in IR (a fact which is highlighted through the use of boxes in Steans and Pettiford's 'Introduction to IR') studying International Relations also profoundly affects students' experiences of watching film. Films with simple storylines, or comedies become imbued with deeper cultural meanings and messages. For instance, some films on the Vietnam war can be viewed as relatively straight-forward in the sense that we are often encouraged to identify with and fear for the life of an American soldier or groups of soldiers. The student of IR might quickly realise that Vietnam was a war in which many more Vietnamese died than Americans; that rather than view it as a noble cause and the American as 'hero' we might want to regard Vietnam as a US invasion, undermining democracy and so on. It is rare for an American produced film dealing with the Vietnam War to even employ the device of subtitles to help us understand and empathise with Vietnamese characters. Knowledge of and research into all sorts of areas allows us to see the Americanisation of history and the retelling of stories in a wholly inaccurate fashion, for example Black Hawk Down or U571. In other films indigenous struggles are made 'real' for America audiences through the involvement of an American; as in Beyond Rangoon where the American heroine automatically seems to lead the freedom loving Burmese hordes, harking back to George Orwell's first novel 'Burmese Days'. But even in films less obviously 'political' the student of IR tends automatically to be looking at the films biases and assumptions to get at the messages that it is 'hiding' either deliberately or inadvertently.

For those of you who get tired of reading but still want to feel that you are doing something to broaden your understanding of IR the following films are recommended.

1492, Conquest of Paradise
(Dir. Ridley Scott, 1992)

Gerard Depardieu in the epic tale depicting the dawn of the age of Imperialism. The voyage of Christopher Columbus is portrayed in dramatic terms, but almost wholly told from the perspective of the European explorers. Little is made of the pre-existing indigenous civilisations and the various impacts, such as decimation by contagious diseases, which were to follow this initial contact between these two civilisations. The title itself has a certain patronising character with the assumption that the North American continent was somehow devoid of conflict in a pre-‘fall from grace’ Garden of Eden analogy. This is simplistic in the extreme and denies the complexity and agency of the many indigenous tribes and cultures that interacted, not always peacefully, prior to the Columbian era.

Despite many historians doubting the veracity of the narrative several aspects of IR theory can be related to this dramatisation. Clearly power politics are involved with the superior technological capabilities of the Europeans being determining factors in the acceleration of European influence over indigenous populations, in both North and South America with the later arrival of the Conquistadors. It can also be seen as the beginning of the global economic processes which is focused upon by Dependency and World Systems theorists.

All Quiet on the Western Front
(Dir. Lewis Milestone, 1930)

This is widely regarded as a classic anti-war film. Famous for its brutal realism in portraying life, and death, in the trenches of the First World War this film retains the ability to draw the viewer into the very personal experiences of the combatants. In addition to the expected scenes of industrial warfare there is also conveyed the human dimension of soldiers, on both sides of the conflict, being human with concerns and emotions that had a universal quality – despite the unusual and traumatic circumstances under which the story unfolds. This film clearly relates to the Realist state-centric approach, with the context of the narrative being warring states. However, elements of other approaches, such as Feminism, are also present in that much of the drama is played out with the focus being at the level of the individual and their very personal experiences of the conflict.

Apocalypse Now
(Dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1979)

This film is a reworking of Joseph Conrad’s book Heart of Darkness in the context of the Vietnam War. In addition to the juxtaposition of the industrialised war-machine of the United States, in opposition to the guerrilla warfare techniques of the Vietcong, there is also an exploration of aspects of power and personal responsibility. The character of Colonel Kurtz (Marlon Brando) can be seen as an allegory for broader issues related to the US’ role in the world, specifically Southeast Asia. Kurtz is portrayed as having arrived in his jungle fortress with clear intentions and resolve, but he slides into doubts about his purpose to the point of madness. Rather too literal to compare individual psychosis to the behaviour of an organisation as complex as a nation state, but an interesting comparison all the same.

Beyond Rangoon
(Dir. John Boorman, 1995)

Although this film is based on a true story it is possible to critique it for the manner in which the narrative is presented. It deals with the student-led popular uprisings against the military dictatorship in Myanmar (Burma). However, the central role features an American woman who is portrayed as playing a significant role in the protests, despite having been in the country a relatively short time and apparently having little or no prior knowledge of local conditions. In many ways this is a filmic device to allow the audience to view events through the eyes and actions of a character they can relate to. Yet at the same time it also results in denying, to some degree, the more important context and role of the indigenous population.

Black Hawk Down
(Dir. Ridley Scott, 2001)

This is a particularly controversial account of US military operation in Somalia. As with many of the portrayals of US intervention into other states the local population are reduced to a general backdrop against which the drama unfolds. Little effort is made to provide a context as to why US forces have been deployed or what their general mission entails. Given the relatively short time-span between the actual events this drama was based on and the film’s release it is unsurprising that several critics drew attention to the mismatch between the contemporary reporting of the failure of the US mission in Somalia with the heroic portrayal of the US forces.

The Burning Season
(Dir John Frankenheimer, 1994)

This film is a biography of the Brazilian rubber-tapper and environmental campaigner Chico Mendes. It is unusual for a major motion picture to be devoted to environmental issues, but Mendes was a charismatic character and the manner of his death served to highlight the issues he was campaigning on. It should also be remembered that the film was released at a time when deforestation of the Amazonian rainforest was reaching critical proportions. Environmental issues were gaining ground on the international political agenda with the Earth Summit of 1992 having been held in Brazil. The film relates to various aspects of IR from the role of individual political activists, through to the role of big business and the difficulty of reaching international, or even national, agreements to promote sustainable development.

Crimson Tide
(Dir. Tony Scott, 1995)

Post-Cold War drama set on a US nuclear submarine. Denzil Washington plays a young first officer opposite Gene Hackman as his captain who is prepared to launch a nuclear attack prior to confirmation of orders from Washington (as in DC, not Denzil). In many ways this could be a standard Cold War scenario as to whether or not the feared mutually assured destruction of the nuclear era could ever occur. Yet it is significant that the film is not set at the height of the Cold War era and there is a sense that the two lead characters are meant to represent a generational passage from one era to the next. It can also be read as a broader story of following one’s conscious despite having to make a stand against established authority / order.

Cromwell
(Dir. Ken Hughes, 1970)

Richard Harris stars as Oliver Cromwell in this account of the battle for sovereignty between the monarch, Charles I as played by Alec Guinness, and Parliament. In addition to the dimension of wrestling political control from the King this story also explores the relationship between church and state, and competing religious positions.

Cross of Iron
(Dir. Sam Peckinpah, 1977)

Unusually for a US-produced war film the central characters here are German soldiers fighting on the Eastern Front. The expected formulae of male bonding, and conflict, under extraordinary and dangerous circumstances are played out. Interestingly audiences are encouraged to have sympathy for German soldiers, although here facing the Russians rather than British or US troops. There is also a subtle distinction made between the ‘ordinary’ German foot soldiers and the more ideologically-driven Nazis of the SS.

Danton
(Dir. Andrzej Wajda, 1983)

Gerard Depardieu stars as French revolutionary Danton. The film explores the struggle over the direction of the French Revolution and the conflict between the former allies Danton and Robespierre. The action is set against the post-Revolution executions known as the Terror. Rather ‘wordy’ but worthwhile as a study in how power can be manipulated and corrupt the ideals of a revolutionary movement, thereby possibly recreating the very injustices fought against.

Dr Strangelove: or how I learned to stop worrying and love the bomb
(Dir. Stanley Kubrick, 1964)

Peter Sellers plays several roles in this classic satire of Cold War paranoia. This film was a direct critique of the Superpowers’ policy of mutually assured destruction. Notably it went into production shortly after the Cuban missile crisis, widely regarded as the closest the Superpowers came to falling into the abyss of open nuclear conflict.

Forrest Gump
(Dir. Robert Zemeckis, 1994)

A very successful film, in terms of takings at the box office. With the tagline ‘The world will never be the same once you've seen it through the eyes of Forrest Gump’ this film is particularly relevant to the concept of competing paradigms and how attitudes can alter interpretations of events. There is the added appeal of the recurring motif of the central character being somehow involved in several of the significant happenings of the past decades. Although these events are often only sketchily portrayed with little in the way of historical context provided.

Galipoli
(Dir. Peter Weir, 1981)

An early film in the career of Mel Gibson this has a particular resonance for audiences from Australia and New Zealand. ANZAC forces suffered especially high casualty rates during this campaign. Despite more recent reorientation of these two countries away from its previous links with Britain and towards their Pacific neighbours, at least economically, ANZAC day continues to be a significant day on both states’ national calendars. In part this can be seen as related to the nation-building project that both states were still undertaking during the years of the First World War. A more sophisticated analysis might look at racial aspects of the cultural memory and resonance of ANZAC Day, but such issues are not covered in this film.

Gandhi
(Dir. Richard Attenborough, 1982)

Ben Kingsley’s portrayal of the Indian icon covers the period from his early years in Africa through to his assassination. It is an epic account of the transition of the ‘jewel in the crown’ of the British Empire as it moves, painfully, towards independence. For students of peace studies and conflict resolution it is an interesting study on the principle of non-violence. There is an especially dramatic scene where British troops open fire on demonstrators led by Gandhi. As with the film The Mission the viewer is drawn into the dilemma of how to respond to aggression, without reinforcing and escalating it.

Germinal
(Dir. Claude Berri, 1993)

Set in northern France during the 19th century this film depicts the oppressive conditions in which a mining community live. The mine owners, with the aid of the political authorities, resist a subsequent strike. It is useful as both a study of power relations and also in terms of the economic dimension of such relations. Although this film has a domestic context it is worth considering international economic relations and workers rights in a similar manner.

Glory
(Dir. Edward Zwick, 1989)

Morgan Freeman and Denzel Washington star in an unusual rendition of the US civil war as it features black characters as active combatants, rather than slaves awaiting ‘liberation’. It is also notable in that it demonstrates that, although not of the same scale as the First World War, the US civil war was the first mechanised war drawing on industrial technology.

Goodfellas
(Dir. Martin Scorsese, 1990)

Superficially this is a straightforward ‘gangster’ movie. A more sophisticated analysis would note the dimension of an alternative culture of Italian-American immigrants and their families operating in parallel with the dominant culture of the time. Notably this subculture has its own norms, values, hierarchy and strict codes of conduct. It raises questions about cultural relativism and aspect of moral behaviour and the judgement thereof.

Guilty By Suspicion
(Dir. Irwin Winkler, 1991)

David Merrill (Robert DeNiro), a fictitious 1950s Hollywood director, returns from filming abroad in France to find that his loyalty has been called into question by the House Committee on Un-American Activities and he is unable to work until cleared. The ‘witch-hunts’ of this period were typical of the way in which Superpower conflict impacted on the domestic arena. Moreover they also had a further implication in that many government officials, notably in overseas intelligence gathering positions, were suspect if they had knowledge or language skills in Russian, Chinese or other Asian languages. Unsurprisingly by marginalizing the people in these posts the US State Department was poorly prepared to deal with both China and Vietnam in subsequent years, and conflicts.

Invasion of the Bodysnatchers
(Dir. Don Siegel, 1956)

Perhaps the most famous allegorical film made during the height of the Cold War. The theme was alien invasion, but not in the style of flying saucers or bug-eyed monsters. This was a far subtler invasion where people look outwardly the same but they have a marked shift in personality. Significantly those that have been ‘taken over’ appear passive and are eventually seen to be working cooperatively in order to create a society free from individual personalities. This clearly refers to the perceived threat of Communist expansion, both at home and abroad.

La Haine
(Dir. Mathieu Kassovitz, 1995)

Set in contemporary France this film explores conflict in the context of both class and racial issues. It particularly deals with the plight of immigrant communities in a period when Marie Le Pen and the Front Nationale where enjoying unprecedented popular support at the polls.

Land and Freedom
(Dir. Ken Loach, 1995)

A rare dramatic portrayal of the Spanish Civil War and the role of the voluntary forces that made up the International Brigades. The story follows a British volunteer and traces his initial enthusiasm for the anti-Fascist cause through to his questioning of the various factionalisms and disputes that ran through many of the Republican forces.

Lord of the Flies
(Dir. Peter Brook, 1963)

Adapted from William Golding’s novel the storyline concerns a group of adolescent boys stranded on a deserted island. In the absence of established authority figures they develop their own style of society and hierarchy, and conflict. While not a direct corollary to Hobbes’ Leviathan world of ‘all against all’ it certainly has echoes of this work.

The Matrix
(Dirs. Andy and Larry Wachowski, 1999)

Keanu Reeves stars in this dystopian view of the future in an interesting post-modern play on concepts of reality and power. It also features aspect of the cult of personality with Reeves’ ‘Neo’ character portrayed as a Christ-like figure that is both prophet and saviour. Perhaps most interesting is the way in which characters come to realise that the order and ‘reality’ they had taken for granted was, in fact, an illusion. Alternatively one could argue that the ‘revealed’ world of the Matrix was itself a delusion. The narrative leads one to question one’s basic assumption, but also to consider how any situation or context can be truly determined to be real.

Missing
(Dir. Costa-Gavras, 1982)

Jack Lemmon stars in a story based on actual events. He plays the father searching for the whereabouts of his journalist son who goes missing while working in a Latin American state during the 1970s. As the story unfolds the patriotic American father realises that his own country is directly implicated in supporting the authoritarian regime responsible for the disappearance of not only his son but also many other citizens. The scale of the summary kidnappings and executions conducted by the paramilitary forces is brought home during a scene in a football stadium containing hundreds of bodies. The film raises important questions about clandestine intervention in another country’s affairs.

The Mission
(Dir. Roland Joffe, 1986)

As with Gandhi this film is ultimately about how to respond to violence. Here the story revolves around the relationship between a former mercenary soldier and a Jesuit priest set in Central America at the time of the Spanish and Portuguese exploitation and settlement of the region. Issues of imperialism, religion and human rights are all covered.

Patton: Lust for Glory
(Dir. Franklin J. Schaffner, 1970)

George C. Scott stars in the true story of US General Patton. He was a career soldier and rose to one of the highest ranks in the US armed forces. He was notoriously out-spoken and was regularly at odds with both his military superiors and political leaders of his time. The film mainly covers his World War Two campaigns.

Platoon
(Dir. Oliver Stone, 1986)

One of a series of films that dealt with the legacy of the Vietnam war produced during the mid-1980s. This one gives a sense of both the conflict between the US troops and the Vietcong but also, more centrally, deals with the conflicts within the platoon in question. On its release much was made of the fact that the director had been deployed on a tour of duty to Vietnam, although it is not entirely clear exactly how this added to the authenticity of the story.

Rising Sun
(Dir. Philip Kaufman, 1993)

While not on the same scale as the ideological and military paranoia of the Cold War era this Sean Connery and Wesley Snipes ‘vehicle’ captures the sense of US disquiet in late 1980s regarding increasing Japanese economic influence in the global economy. Racial stereotypes abound.

Schindler's List
(Dir. Steven Spielberg, 1993)

This film a based on a true story about a German manufacturer who was influential in saving the lives of many hundreds of Jews during the Holocaust.

Star Trek VI
(Dir. Nicholas Meyer, 1991)

The Star Trek television series and films cover a range of issues that can be read in terms of both domestic politics and international relations. The plotlines often place the crew of the starship Enterprise in situations calling for moral or ethical dilemmas to be addressed and resolved. The ‘first directive’ of non-interference can be seen as relating to the concept of sovereignty, although Captain Kirk and his company generally do interfere in one way or another. This particular film is indicative of its time of production and has unmistakable references to the end of the Cold War.

Starship Troopers
(Dir. Paul Verhoeven, 1997)

Although a relatively recently produced film the storyline, and attitude, harks back to the ‘pulp’ fiction novels of the 1950s, one of which was the direct inspiration for this film. The violent conflict that takes place between the humans and insect-like aliens has no hint of diplomacy or conflict resolution. It is a whole-hearted ‘clash of civilizations’ where strategy, tactics and the deployment of extensive firepower are the key dynamics in the conflict. There is also some interesting subtexts dealing with issues of identity formation, gender relations, group bonding and hierarchical authority structures. It is a matter of conjecture to what extent the makers of the film intended it to be deconstructed and read in this manner.

Salvador
(Dir. Oliver Stone, 1986)

An early Oliver Stone film dealing with a recurring theme of this director’s work, the clandestine activities of the US government. On this occasion the plot charts the experiences of an American journalist in Salvador who realises that the internal conflict there is being significantly influenced by covert operations of the CIA and elements of US military intelligence.

The Crucible
(Dir. Nicholas Hynter, 1996)

Based on Arthur Miller’s tale of the Salem Witch Trials, which was an allegory of the anti-Communist trials that were so indicative of 1950s America. Although set out of period the references to show trials, false accusations and a general sense of fear and paranoia about an assumed ‘enemy within’ are clear references to the operations of the House Committee on Un-American Activities.

The Day of the Jackal
(Dir. Fred Zinnemann, 1973)

This film is based on a true story of an assassination attempt on French President De Gaulle. Little is explored on why he was a target with the majority of the film detailing the assassin’s preparation for the ‘hit’. However, the underlying theme of ‘terrorist’ activity is becoming increasingly salient and, as such, the film is not as dated as it might first appear.

The Deer Hunter
(Dir. Michael Cimino, 1978)

One of the first American films post-Vietnam War to seriously consider both the conflict and its aftermath for the combatants, at least on the US side. Famous for its ‘Russian roulette’ scene the film is an exceptional study of small town America and aspects of the Vietnam War that look beyond the normal focus on the actual armed conflict. The latter part of the film deals with one of the central characters returning to Vietnam and refers to prisoners of war and those deemed as missing in action. For many years after the formal end of hostilities there were suspicions in the US that the North Vietnamese was still holding captured soldiers.

The Godfather
(Dir. Francis Ford Coppola, 1972)

As with Goodfellas this film deals with a migrant community in the US operating in an almost parallel social structure. In this film however there is a greater sense of the inner workings of this society. In many ways the dynamics played out here have echoes of the themes to be found in Machiavelli’s classic text The Prince. The head of the family (Marlon Brando) is effectively a monarch with a royal court and advisors. Admittedly this operates within the framework of a nation state and its judicial process of law, yet the Don appears to be closeted from this. Although too simplistic to say that the relations between the various Mafia families can be seen as allegorical of state-to-state relations it is clear that they enjoy a certain element of ‘sovereignty’ between both themselves, and their host society and culture.

The Man Who Would be King
(Dir. John Huston, 1975)

In many ways and old-fashioned Boys’ Own ‘romp’ of a film with two likeable adventurous rogues exploring and surviving in exotic locations and societies. Beneath the surface though this is quite a serious critique of imperialism and the corruptive nature of power.

They Live
(Dir. John Carpenter, 1988)

Not an obvious choice with regard to international relations but this, and several other ‘zombie’-related films, can be read as a critique of contemporary consumer society. Several readings of this genre of film have taken their theme as the zombie representing the average consumer who is in some respects ‘un-dead’. That is they are tranquillised by consumerist delights to the point that they no longer feel the more spiritual dimensions of life. Significantly this can also be seen in terms of political engagement with consumerism replacing, or combining with in some cases, religion as the ‘opium of the masses’.

Tora, Tora, Tora
(Dir. Richard Fleischer and Kinji Fukasaku 1970)

Reconstruction of the Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour. Apart from the reasonably accurate portrayal of the offensive this is an interesting, and unusual, example in that it attempts to tell the story of the conflict from both sides. Two directors were used to cover each side of the conflict with extensive use of the Japanese language.

U571
(Dir. Jonathan Mostow, 2000)

Historical accuracy was clearly not at the forefront of the minds of the makers of this particular film. There was considerable controversy when the true story of the Enigma code-breaking device was transposed from being a British achievement to one centred on US forces, including the interesting casting of Jon Bon Jovi as an able submariner. Despite the ‘Hollywoodisation’ of the story it remains relevant as a war-time drama highlighting the significance of intelligence and counter-intelligence issues.

Wall St
(Dir. Oliver Stone, 1987)

Michael Douglas' character Gordon Gecko states the memorable line 'Greed is good'. In many ways this epitomises the ethos of the Reagan / Thatcher era of market-driven policies, with scant regard for social justice or sustainability.

Themes and Issues

This section considers a range of concepts and issues dealt with in the book. It highlights how various themes and issue areas are considered in different parts of the text. This draws attention to one of the key points of the book, that ‘facts’, information and arguments can be viewed and approached in many differing ways. The concepts and issues listed here are illustrative of this diversity of perspectives. Each one will be positioned, and repositioned, in relation to various writers and schools of thought.

Hegemony

For Realists this concept is explicitly state-centric with a single power seen as dominating the international state system. Neo-Realists, such as Waltz, would concur with such a view, but would modify it to emphasize the role of multinational corporations as ‘agents of the state’ in reinforcing such a dominant position. The chapter on Realism refers to the distinctions to be made between Realists and Neo-Realists. For each though the concept of Hegemony is relatively straightforward and simply reflects a preponderance of power to the extent that a single power dominates an entire system.

Compare this position with that of Structuralism in Chapter Three. Here you will find a much more abstract understanding of Hegemony where factors such as the use of English dominating the Internet are seen as significant. This focus on the implication of the use of language, and the meanings and values associated with certain words, would also have a resonance with the Postmodernists discussed in Chapter Five. Critical Theory as discussed in Chapter Four, especially the work of Gramsci, has more to say on Hegemony in relation to the study of world order and institutions. Similarly Feminist writers have commented on aspects of Hegemony with reference to gender relations. Each approach has a differing interpretation of what areas are significant in determining how world order(s) should be viewed and assessed.

Power

This is a concept that can be seen to run through all of the approaches covered in this book, albeit in many differing forms. Realism is sometimes referred to as a ‘power politics’ approach. Power in this context is seen as largely relational with ‘Actor A compelling actor B to do something it would otherwise not have done’. Lukes, in his text On Power, makes a distinction between relational and structural power. This differing emphasis on the dynamics of power relations is reflected in the varied ways in which the theories covered in the text approach this issue. The chapter on Structuralism takes the broader approach of considering the boundaries, structures or ‘rules of the game’ within which power relationships are played out. For example, international institutions such as the United Nations or the World Bank may appear to represent a cooperative approach to international relations. While this is true, up to a point, there are structural dimension to both of these bodies that allows a structural advantage in favour of certain players. In the case of the UN the permanent members of the Security Council have the power of veto that can block proposals presented by members of the General Assembly, although the members of the GA far outnumber those of the SC. Similarly there is a weighted voting system within the World Bank structure that favours some states over others.

All approaches deal with power in one form or another. See Chapter Six for an exploration of power from a Feminist perspective in relation to patriarchal structures in many societies. Green thought, as discussed in Chapter Eight, also refers to various forms of power. Weather patterns and other forces of nature can be extremely powerful. This is something that is often overlooked in the predominantly anthropocentric views held by the majority of approaches to international relations.

Development
This is one of the most controversial concepts in the study of international relations. For writers such as Walt Rostow there are clear stages of modernisation and development. This position is critiqued in the chapter on Structuralism that questions the view that engaging with the ‘free’ market is the way forward for states and societies wishing to improve their lot. Andre Gunder Frank has referred to the ‘under-development of development’. He, and associated writers such as Immanuel Wallerstein, highlighted the structural disadvantages that engaging in international trade from a position of inferiority can intensify. As such ‘development’ then becomes a more subjective concept where remoteness from the ‘cores’ of the global economy may be seen as a positive rather than negative situation. Similarly Green theories question the high, and therefore non-sustainable, rates of consumption associated with the more ‘developed’ world. How developed is a society that exploits resources well beyond the level of natural regeneration, while simultaneously creating dangerous levels of pollution as a side effect? Such examples offer a critique of the one-dimensional view that development simply refers to increased economic activity and resulting patterns of consumption.
Identity
Identity politics are generally associated with those approaches that focus at the level of the individual. Feminism, in particular, highlights the relationship between the individual and broader societal structures and dynamics. Beyond these each of the main approaches to the study of international relations have aspects of identity politics associated with them. Although Structuralism concentrates on highlighting the context and power structures within which individuals operate it is important to note that identity and community, by definition, also feature in this approach. Moreover, even the state-centric Realist approach has aspects of identity within it. These are more commonly associated with the concept of national identity and, as a group-focused identity formation, this is somewhat at odds with the more individual-focused approaches such as Feminism. Liberal pluralist approaches highlight the rise of civil society and the advent of a great number of non-governmental organizations. Many of these are single interest lobbying groups, or have associations that run counter to national identity formation. More accurately they might provide an outlet for identity formation that either conflicts with or coincides with ideas of national identity. Here one might be identifying oneself in terms of, for example, race, gender, sexual orientation or religious belief. Therefore identity can be seen as being relevant to virtually all aspects of theory, but with some approaches having a more explicit reference point at the level of the individual than others.
Conflict
This is a theme that is directly related to the origins of the discipline of International Relations. The first Chair of IR, located in Aberystwyth, was created in 1919 as a direct result of the First World War. Although, therefore, closely associated with aspects of warfare the focus of the discipline at this time was conflict prevention. Since that time IR has evolved in many different directions. Chapters One and Two refer to the shift from a predominantly Idealist/Utopian approach through to that of Realism. Of course aspects of conflict are also featured in relation to the other approaches discussed. Structuralism is less state-centric and looks at conflict, following the work of Marx and related writers, in terms of class divisions. Feminism also refers to aspects of identity politics that often have elements of conflict inherent within relevant societal norms, values and institutions. Similarly environmental approaches, those that see humans as distinct from their natural surroundings, focus on the relationship between humans and their environment as generally one of conflict.
Justice
The concept of justice has more credence within some approaches rather than others. For Realists the cornerstone of the international system remains the sovereign state. They are not unaware of issues of social injustice, but they see them as something to be dealt with at the domestic level. Compare this with Structuralism that sees inequality as a fundamental and enduring feature of international relations. On could argue that this is similar to the Realist position. However, a fundamental difference is that the majority of writers within Structuralism would add a normative or moral dimension to their analysis, arguing that these inequalities are wrong and that action should be taken to address such issues. Equally Feminism’s focus at the level of the individual also demands that issues of justice and equity are considered. For Postmodernists issues of inequality and justice have an additional complication. They recognise a diverse, culturally heterogeneous world. As such this raise questions about essential moral positions within communities and, therefore, needs to consider attitudes and relationships between various communities that may have quite different views on what constitutes ‘justice’.
Change
It is often said that the most distinctive characteristic of the process of globalisation is that of change. The prospect of change is one of the defining differences between some of the main schools of thought in IR. For Realists there is a fixed human nature that is essentially selfish and, therefore, likely to lead to conflict between individuals and groups unless some form of mechanism is in place to deter aggressive tendencies. This does not necessarily suggest stasis in the international system. Far from it as conflict does occur and change does take place in terms of the relative positions of the various actors involved. Yet for Realists this reflects a deeper sense of consistency in that they identify core interests, such as attempting to maintain sovereign authority, that remain in place regardless of how conflicts are eventually resolved. From the Liberal perspective the possibility of change is one of the key drivers. In part this is because Liberals stress the role and agency of individuals to influence their environment. Even though Structuralism places the emphasis on the forces that work against change in a system or institution it is still the need for, and prospect of, change that is central to this approach. Feminist and Green thought also often highlight injustice and inequality with a view to promoting change. Postmodernism and Critical Theory takes this a step further in discussing how change might be resisted, or implemented, in relation to more abstract concepts such as use of language, dominant discourses and how these influence attitudes and relationships.
Discourse
This is a term particularly associated with Postmodernists who place emphasis on how language is constructed and used. However, it should be noted that the use of language is something that applies to all approaches to IR. Realists might be thought to have a certain advantage in terms of an association with being ‘realistic’ in their views, as opposed to the ‘unrealistic’ aspirations of Idealism / Utopianism. The use of language in relation to discourse is significant in that it can be said to create the thing of which it speaks. This means that there are value-laden words and terms that feed into how people and situations are portrayed and perceived. In turn this can create a situation whereby certain groups or individuals are advantaged or disadvantage simply because of how they are described and, therefore, viewed.
Regime

This term has two distinct meanings. In relation to state-centric approaches it refers to the particular power structure governing a state. Regime change in this case can simply mean the replacement of one ruler by another. Regime theory on the other hand, as described by Krasner and others, is much broader dealing with norms, values and a diverse range of actors. For example, the climate change regime includes states, civil society and relevant groups such as the scientific community. Such a regime is extremely complex and can encompass many differing views. In relation to scientists there are varying positions taken on the extent, or even existence of climate change and global warming. Norms and values do not have to be shared to be part of the same regime. The fact that there is disagreement on the science of climate change is a notable feature of this particular regime.

Regimes, in the latter and broader sense, can thus be identified in relation to many of the approaches covered in the book. Realism has a regime of sorts, albeit somewhat restricted by its state-centric approach. Liberals refer to more complex regimes, not only but in part simply because of the greater range of actors considered. Structuralism, even though not always explicitly referring to regimes, includes them in terms of the structures and processes this approach identifies. The more personal or individual-focused approaches, such as Feminism, can also be associated with regimes in that individuals operate within the context of particular regimes, although the individuals themselves may not always recognize this.

Enlightenment
Generally this refers to a period around the eighteenth century when there was a move from superstition and a religious-dominated worldview, to one based more on reason and moral and material advancement. Although having its origins in a particular period of history it should be noted that the consequences of this shift in thinking had repercussions that inform many of the approaches dealt with in this book. In the chapter on Postmodernists, especially those influenced by the work of Heidegger, you will see that they have critiqued Enlightenment thinking in terms of the ‘rational’ thinking that allows horrifying acts of cruelty and barbarism. Modernisation that actually promotes greater levels of inequality is also criticised. This is something that has relevance for both Feminism and Green thought. Ironically the shift away from religious belief, originally hailed as a triumph for the agency of individuals to have a greater sense of control over their destinies, has in some cases created situations whereby individual freedoms and opportunities have been diminished. The evolution of political thought from the Enlightenment period onwards demonstrates a great variety of thinking, as reflected in the various chapters of this book.