Students
Glossary
Academic sociology
The way academic institutions describe and explain the social world. Characteristic are the systematic way of gathering knowledge, making explanations public and subject to criticism, the development of coherent theories and rigorous testing.
Application question
Type of scientific question targeted towards applying scientific knowledge.
Background knowledge
The theories and observations that are known before the study commences.
Common sense
Everyday thinking, intuitions, beliefs and perceptions.
Comparative-case question
Question which includes some comparison of cases, such as multiple social contexts, multiple moments in time and/or multiple populations.
Cumulative science
The practice that theories and observations of earlier studies are incorporated in the work of successive studies.
Descriptive question
Type of scientific question targeted towards describing phenomena.
False theoretical question
Theoretical question which aims to explain something that does not exist.
Ill-defined question
Question which is vague and ambiguous. Such questions are contrasted with precise questions, which have clear interpretations.
Individual perspective
Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on individual causes.
Literature review
Systematic overview of the theories and observations that are known (background knowledge), typically in a certain specialized field of research.
Macro level
Social contexts that are broader than meso-level units. Examples: nations, groups of nations, continents.
Meso level
Social contexts at the intermediate level. Examples: families, neighborhoods,schools, organizations.
Micro level
The level at which individuals operate. Commonly distinguished from meso level and macro level.
Normative question
Question that entails value judgments.
Personal trouble
Problem related to the personal life of an individual. Contrasted with social problem (public issue).
Precise question
Question which has clear interpretation. Such questions are contrasted with ill-defined questions, which are vague and ambiguous.
Private sociologists
The way human beings, in daily life, make sense of the social world. As such they are prone to, among other things, intuitive thinking, implicit reasoning, development of incoherent and vague ideas, keeping knowledge private and searching for confirmations. Contrasted with academic sociology.
Proximate causes
Factors that are close to the phenomena to be explained. Proximate causes can be explained by ultimate causes.
Public issue
See: Social problem.
Question ingredients
Elements of a question which can be specified. These are: (1) behavior of interest, (2) social contexts, (3) period and (4) populations.
Scientific question
Question that does not entail value judgments. There are three types of scientific questions, namely: descriptive, theoretical and application.
Scientific relevance
Relevance of sociological work for the accumulation of sociological knowledge.
Social context
Social environment in which people are embedded.
Social intervention
Social policy measure.
Social phenomenon
Collective human behavior.
Social problem
Problem that: 1 goes beyond the personal troubles of the individual (it affects many people); 2 is an issue about which many people are concerned. Synonym: Public issue.
Societal relevance
Relevance of sociological work for the understanding of social problems.
Sociological imagination
Type of explanation of human behavior which focuses on social causes. Synonym: Sociological perspective.
Sociological perspective
See: Sociological imagination.
Theoretical question
Type of scientific question targeted towards understanding phenomena.
Ultimate causes
Factors that underlie proximate causes.
Bidirectional relation
Relation between two variables X and Y, such that changes in X result in changes in Y, and changes in Y result in changes in X. Synonym: Feedback relation.
Causality
Idea that an independent variable (X) has an effect on a dependent variable (Y).
Complete mediation
The impact of X on Y is completely accounted for by a third variable, Z, such that there is no other way that X affects Y than via Z.
Concept
Hypothetical abstraction that contains certain categories. Synonym: Theoretical variable.
Conceptual model
Type of theory tool in which the causal relationships between concepts are visualized.
Condition
Assumption about the specific setting which relates propositions to observations and hypotheses.
Deductive-nomological explanation
Form of explanation of phenomena using proposition(s) and conditions.
Deeper explanation
Type of explanation in which one proposition is explained by another, more general, proposition.
Dependent variable
Variable which is affected by another variable (independent variable).
Direct causal relationship
A relationship between two variables X and Y, such that changes in X have a direct effect on changes in Y.
Empirical success
The degree of empirical confirmation of a theory.
Feedback relation
See: Bidirectional relation.
Formal model
Punishment for behavior diverging from legal norms.
Hypothesis
Testable prediction, derived from theory.
Independent variable
Variable which has an effect on another variable (dependent variable).
Information content
The degree of theoretical precision and theoretical scope of a theory.
Interaction effect
See: Moderation effect.
Mediator
A variable Z that mediates the relationship between variables X and Y, such that changes in X impact changes in Z, which then results in changes in Y.
Moderation effect
The relationship between X and Y is dependent on variable Z. Synonym: Interaction effect.
Modus tollens
Logic rule which states that if it is hypothesized that A leads to B, and it is observed that B is not true, then A cannot be true either.
Partial mediation
The impact of X on Y is partially accounted for by a third variable, Z, such that X affects Y via Z, but also via other variables.
Proposition
Universal statement, i.e., statement about the causal relations between two or more concepts.
Scope condition
Set of conditions to which a certain theory is applicable.
Theoretical precision
The degree to which the theory excludes possibilities of what could happen with respect to a particular case.
Theoretical scope
The degree to which the theory is applicable to a wider range of cases: phenomena, populations and settings.
Theoretical variable
See: Concept.
Theory
Coherent set of propositions and assumptions about conditions which can explain certain phenomena and which generate hypotheses (predictions) on other (yet unobserved and hypothetical) phenomena.
Theory schema
Type of theory tool in which propositions, conditions, hypotheses and observations are written out as a coherent set of verbal statements.
Theory tool
Tool which helps to systematically present a theory. Three often-used theory tools are: theory schema, conceptual model and formal model.
Typology
A way of classifying reality, often done by combining concepts.
Administrative research
Research in which the researcher uses data on human populations that are provided by official institutions such as governments, schools or hospitals.
Biased sample
Sample for which observations in the study cannot be generalized to the population.
Big data research
Research in which the researcher uses (unstructured) data from the Internet, digital communication and digital traces.
Case study research
Research that is an in-depth examination of an extensive amount of information about very few units or cases.
Complex concept
Theoretical concept that consists of different dimensions.
Conceptualization
The differentiation of various dimensions of theoretical variables. Relevant for complex concepts.
Descriptive research
Research whose purpose is to come up with accurate descriptions of social phenomena.
Dimensions
Aspects of theory variables.
Empirical variable
See: Measure.
Experimental research
Research in which the researcher manipulates conditions for some research participants but not others and then compares group responses to see whether doing so made a difference.
Explanatory research
Research whose purpose is to rigorously test hypotheses.
Exploratory research
Research whose purpose is to discover new phenomena and to construct new theories.
External validity
The validity of inferences about whether the results of the study are generalizable beyond a specific study.
False negative
A research finding which suggests the hypothesis is false, whereas in reality the hypothesis is true.
False positive
A research finding which suggests the hypothesis is true, whereas in reality the hypothesis is false.
Indicator
See: Measure.
Induction
Inferences that are made from observations of only a limited number of cases to a more general, universal pattern.
Internal validity
The validity of inferences about whether an observed association between X (independent variable) and Y (dependent variable) reflects a causal relationship from X to Y.
Measure
Variable used in empirical research. Synonym: Indicator, Empirical variable, Proxy.
Measurement quality
Quality of the measures. This depends on the validity and reliability of the measures.
Measurement reliability
The degree to which the measurement instrument gives the same result when repeating the observation of the same phenomenon.
Measurement validity
The degree to which measures reflect the theoretical concept that they are intended to measure.
Observational research
Research in which the researcher relies on non-experimental observations.
Operationalization
Translation of theoretical variables (concepts) into empirical variables (indicators).
Population
The entire set of cases about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions.
Probability sample
Sample drawn by giving individuals in the population equal chance to participate in the study.
Proxy
See: Measure.
Replication
Redoing studies on the same topic, theory or hypothesis using different data, methods or measures.
Representative sample
Sample for which observations in the study can be generalized to the population.
Sample
A small set of cases a researcher selects from the population.
Simple concept
Theoretical concept that can be easily measured with empirical variables.
Standardization
Process of making identical procedures, questions, answer categories and other aspects of the measurement instrument.
Stratified sample
Sample based on dividing the population into subpopulations (strata).
Survey research
Research in which the researcher uses questionnaires to collect data from respondents.
Thick description
Detailed description of persons, their behaviors, motivations, social processes and personal relationships within a well-defined case.
WEIRD people
Typical participants in laboratory experiments in the social sciences are: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic. Due to their specific characteristics, they are not representative of the larger population.
Aggregation mechanism
Proposition which relates the individual level to collective outcomes.
Black Box explanations
Type of explanation in which Y is explained by X, but the theoretical mechanism linking X to Y is missing.
Complex aggregation
Idea that collective outcomes result from complex interplay between individuals and their social context.
Culture
Sociological theme on opinions, norms and corresponding behavior.
Ecological explanation
Type of explanation in which both the dependent and independent variable(s) are at the collective level (meso or macro).
Framework
See: Perspective.
Group
Social category with which people can affiliate. Synonym: Affiliation network.
Individual-level effect
Type of propositions which refer to processes at the micro level.
Inequality
Sociological theme on social stratification, social mobility and resources.
Multilevel framework
A framework which considers the interplay between individuals and their social environment.
Opinion
Cognitive beliefs, preferences, attitudes and values.
Norm
Rules of the game in society.
Paradigm
See: Perspective.
Perspective
Certain way of looking at things. Synonym: Framework, Paradigm.
Resources
Capital, opportunities and power one can use to realize one’s goals.
Simple aggregation
Idea that collective outcomes are no more than the sum of their parts.
Social context effect
Influence of social conditions on individual outcomes.
Social dynamics
Ecological relationships and collective changes.
Social interdependency
Situations in which actions of individuals affect those of yet other individuals.
Social mobility
Movement of people from one position to another in the stratification system.
Social network
A set of actors and the ties between them.
Social relations
Sociological theme on social networks and groups.
Social stratification
Unequal distribution of valued goods.
Sociological subtheme
Subdimension of a sociological theme.
Sociological theme
Complex concept which helps to relate diverse, specific topics to each other in a more abstract way. Three main sociological themes are: culture, social relations and inequality.
Sociological topic
A specific subject matter in sociology. Examples: crime, ethnicity, globalization, gender.
Variable sociology
Type of sociology which focuses on causal relationships between variables.
Verstehen
Type of explanation in which subjective understanding plays a key role.
Complex contagion
Diffusion of opinions that need more sources.
Cumulative advantage
Positive feedback process in which prior success increases likelihood of successive success. Synonym: Matthew effect.
Diffusion
The transmission and spread of something.
Individual learning
Things people try out themselves, without being influenced by others.
Informational social influence
Influence to accept information obtained from another as evidence about reality.
Innovation
A completely new belief, or some new practice or object that is based on new beliefs (knowledge), which is aimed to solve a certain problem.
Matthew effect
See: Cumulative advantage.
Negative social influence
Process by which people’s opinions and behavior develop in the opposite direction to the opinions and behavior of other actors in their environment.
Normative social influence
Influence to conform to the positive expectations of another.
Positive social influence
Process by which people’s opinions and behavior develop in the same direction as the opinions and behavior of other actors in their environment.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
When behavior based on false beliefs about a situation cause that situation in the end.
Simple contagion
Diffusion of opinions that need few sources.
Social influence
Process by which people’s opinions and behavior are affected by others.
Social learning biases
Conditions that modify the degree of conformity.
Social proof
The “evidence” individuals perceive which arises when a group of people in the environment does something in the same way.
Thomas and Thomas Theorem
If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
Bystander effect
Phenomenon in which people are less likely to help other people in a critical situation when passive bystanders are present.
Cooperation problem
Certain condition in which rational self-interest behavior results in collective problems. Synonym: Social dilemma.
Coordination problem
Certain condition in which people want to do the same thing, but are uncertain about the behavior of each other.
Cultural inertia
Time-lag between changing social conditions and adapting new norms and opinions.
Cultural maladaptation
Norms and opinions which do not fit their social environment well.
Decree
Top-down change in descriptive norm.
Descriptive norm
Statement specifying what a person is expected to do.
Dominant strategy
Strategy that is favorable to choose irrespective of what other people do.
External sanction
Sanctions imposed by third parties, i.e., other people of the group in which the social norm applies.
Formal sanction
Type of theory tool in which theories are expressed with formalized language.
Free-ride
Type of behavior in which one prefers personal gains above the interest of the group.
Habitus
Behavioral dispositions based on cognitions, moral norms, values and cultural scripts.
Injunctive norm
Normative statement specifying what a person should do or not do. Synonym: Prescriptive norm, Oughtness norm.
Internal sanction
Feeling of shame, guilt and bad conscience resulting from deviation from internalized norms.
Internalized norm
Norm that has become part of people’s intrinsic set of things one should do or prefer to do. Synonym: Moral norm.
Legal norm
Formal, normative statement specifying what a person should do or not do. Synonym: law.
Monitoring
The behavior of an individual within a group is visible to third parties.
Moral norm
See: Internalized norm.
Oughtness norm
See: Injunctive norm.
Pluralistic ignorance
Situation in which the majority of people privately reject a certain norm, but incorrectly believe that others privately support the norm.
Prescriptive norm
See: Injunctive norm.
Public good
Good that serves collective benefits, such as national safety and environmental protection.
Social approval
Rewards and appreciation by other group members for following social norms.
Social norm
Informal, normative statement specifying what a person should do or not do.
Social sanction
Punishment for behavior diverging from social norms.
Spiral of silence
People’s tendency to remain silent and not express their private preferences when they believe that their private preferences deviate from the majority’s preferences.
Third party
Other members of the same group to which certain norms apply.
Unpopular norm
Norm which is not serving collective benefits.
Value
Things that people want and appreciate.
Adjacency matrix
A matrix representing who has a relation to whom in a network.
Community
A cluster of nodes that are more connected internally than externally, either directly and/or indirectly.
Community-bonding ties
Ties between people within the same community.
Community-bridging ties
Ties between people of different communities.
Dyads
Each (possible) relationship between ego and alter.
Edges
The ties in the network.
Forbidden triad
A triad in which ego A has strong ties to alters B and C, but in which no tie exists between B and C.
Graph
A visual representation of relations between actors in a network.
Hub
Highly connected, central nodes in a network.
Indegree
The number of nominations a person receives from others.
Name generator
A survey question which asks respondents to mention the names or initials of alters in their personal network.
Network closure
Highly connected, dense, network
Network density
The ratio of all realized ties in a network to the number of all possible ties in the same network.
Nodes
Actors within the network. In social networks, these are often individuals.
Outdegree
The number of nominations a person makes.
Personal network
A network presenting all the ties that a certain person (ego) has to others (alters).
Personal network cohesion
The degree to which someone’s personal network consists of (strongly) positive relationships as opposed to no/neutral relationships or even (strongly) negative relationships.
Small-world network
A network that is characterized by a high level of local clustering and low average path length.
Social capital paradigm
Perspective according to which social networks have some sort of value.
Social cohesion
The degree to which individuals and groups have (strongly) positive relationships with each other, as opposed to no/neutral relationships or (strongly) negative relationships.
Sociogram
See: Graph.
Strong ties
Positive relationships in which people feel emotionally close to one another, trust each other and help each other out when needed.
Transitivity
See: Triadic closure.
Triad
A network of three actors and the (possible) ties between them.
Triadic closure
The situation in which the two alters of one ego are also connected to each other. Synonym: Transitivity.
Weak ties
A more superficial or instrumental relationship between two people who see each other not that often and are emotionally less close to one another.
Affiliation network
See: Group.
Civil society
Society consisting of a cohesive web of voluntary associations.
Consolidation
Degree of overlap, correlation between groups with respect to a certain dimension.
Endogamy
Marriage between two individuals who belong to the same group.
Exogamy
Marriage between two individuals who belong to different groups. Synonym: Intermarriage, Mixed marriage.
Foci
Social settings in which people participate and that create the pool of people we meet.
Group
Social category with which people can affiliate. Synonym: Affiliation network.
Group-bonding tie
Tie between two individuals who belong to the same group.
Group-bridging tie
Tie between two individuals who belong to a different group.
Intergroup cohesion
Degree to which (members of different) groups in society have positive relations with each other as opposed to negative relations.
Minimal group paradigm
Studies which reveal that arbitrarily created groups which have no interaction between members already reveal in-group favoritism.
Organizational cohesion
Degree of voluntary association involvement.
Social identity
That part of our self-concept corresponding to group identification.
Absolute mobility
Total number of positional changes.
Achievement
Personal effort, skills, talent and performance.
Ascription
Characteristics set at birth, such as family origin and ethnic origin.
Between-country stratification
Unequal distribution of valuable goods between countries.
Compensatory mechanism
Strategic behavior of high-status parents to maintain their high status in times of modernization.
Gini coefficient
Measure of stratification in society which runs from 0 (minimum) to 100 (maximum).
Intergenerational mobility
Changing position between parents and their children in the stratification system.
Intragenerational mobility
Changing position in the stratification system over the life course.
Mobility table
Table which cross-classifies origin and destination position in the stratification system.
Occupational prestige
Subjective ranking of occupations in terms of prestige and respect.
Relative mobility
Inequality between children from (different) social origins in their opportunity to access social positions.
Social class
Group of people who hold similar occupational positions.
Social status
Subjective ranking of individuals or groups in terms of honor, esteem and respect.
Structural mobility
Mobility that is due to changes in the volumes (margins) of available social positions.
Valuable goods
Something that people value.
Within-country stratification
Unequal distribution of valuable goods within countries.
Audit testing
Field experimental method which uses actors to detect discrimination.
Brokerage position
Network position which connects (otherwise disconnected) communities.
Correspondence testing
Field experimental method which uses resumes to detect discrimination.
Cumulative discrimination
Discrimination that occurs in multiple transitions in the life course.
Gender essentialist belief
Belief that there are traits that are distinctively male and female.
Human capital
People’s knowledge and skills insofar as these are relevant to the labor market.
Inequality of opportunity
The relationship between social background and access to resources.
Inequality of outcomes
The relationship between social background and labor market outcomes.
Inequality of returns
The relationship between resources and labor market outcomes.
Labor market discrimination
Employer’s unequal treatment of individuals with the same human capital, based on their group affiliation.
Motherhood penalty
Finding that mothers have less favorable positions in the labor market than non-mothers.
Position generator
Measure of social resources which captures the occupational positions of respondents’ connections.
Social resources
Valuable labor-market-related resources that are embedded in personal networks.
Structural hole
Social network characteristic which refers to the lack of social ties between communities.
Ancestry
Subjective identification with certain ethnic origin(s).
Cultural integration
Degree of similarity between members of ethnic minority and majority groups with respect to cultural opinions, norms and corresponding practices.
Culture of honor
Culture which strongly endorses/values reputation and the right to selfdefense in case one’s honor is threatened.
Economic integration
Degree of similarity between ethnic minority and ethnic majority groups in realizing valued goals.
Ethnic diversity
Ethnic heterogeneity of a population.
Ethnic group
People affiliated to the same origin beyond family roots.
First generation
See: Foreign-born population.
Foreign-born population
People born abroad. Synonym: First generation.
Integration
Degree of cultural similarity (cultural integration), intergroup cohesion (social integration) and similarity in realizing valued goals (economic integration) between ethnic groups.
Residential segregation
Unequal distribution of groups across geographical areas.
Second generation
People born in the host country, with at least one foreign-born parent.
Social integration
Degree of intergroup cohesion between members of different ethnic groups.
Availability heuristic
Cognitive bias that people’s judgment of the probability of events, or the frequency of a kind of thing, depends on the ease with which people can think of certain information.
Collectivism
Collectivistic values, such as emphasis on group loyalty and authority.
Demographic transition
Transition within a population from high fertility and high mortality to low fertility and low mortality.
Empancipative values
See: Individualism.
Flynn effect
Gradual increase in skills and abilities of populations in developed countries between 1930 and 1995.
Horizontal diffusion
Knowledge transmitted within generations.
Individualism
Individualistic values, such as emphasis on autonomy and personal choice. Synonym: Emancipative values.
Many-to-many transmission
Knowledge transmitted from many persons to many persons.
Modernization
Co-occurring and interrelated process of rationalization and socio-economic progress.
One-to-many transmission
Knowledge transmitted from one person to many persons.
One-to-one transmission
Knowledge transmitted from one person to another.
Optimism gap
Situation in which people are more positive about their personal lives than they are about society.
Rights revolution
Increase of human rights in the second half of the 20th century.
Second demographic transition
Change within a population towards extremely low fertility levels.
Socio-economic progress
Progress in wealth, health, peace and safety.
Vertical diffusion
Knowledge transmitted from parents to children, from one generation to the next generation.
Cohort effect
Societal changes that are due to generational replacement.
Collective effervescence
Shared religious activities.
Credibility enhancing displays
Behaviors which signal that people are genuine believers.
Religiosity
Degree of religious belonging and believing.
Religious believing
Degree to which an individual adheres to religious beliefs and values.
Religious belonging
Degree of social integration of an individual in the religious group.
Secularization
Diminishing religiosity, i.e., decline in religious belonging and believing.
Multiple Choice Questions
Further Reading
Further Reading Chapter 1
The sociological perspective
Durkheim, E. (1961 [1897]). Suicide. New York, NY: Free Press.
Mills, C. W. (2000 [1959]). The Sociological Imagination. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Asking good sociological questions
Swedberg, R. (Ed.). (2014). Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Sociology and common sense
Watts, D. J. (2011). Everything is Obvious: Once You Know the Answer. New York, NY: Crown Business.
Sociology as cumulative science
Popper, K. (1999 [1994]). All Life is Problem Solving. London: Routledge.
Popper, K. (2005 [1935]). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge.
Further Reading Chapter 2
Theories and explanations
Hedström, P. (2005). Dissecting the Social: On the Principles of Analytical Sociology. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Popper, K. (2005 [1935]). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge.
Durkheim’s theory of suicide
Durkheim, E. (1961 [1897]). Suicide. New York, NY: Free Press.
Concepts
Jaccard, J., & Jacoby, J. (2010). Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Conceptual models
Jaccard, J., & Jacoby, J. (2010). Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Formal models
Bonacich, P., & Lu, P. (2012). Introduction to Mathematical Sociology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Bradley, I., & Meek, R. L. (2014 [1986]). Matrices and Society: Matrix Algebra and its Applications in the Social Sciences. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Further Reading Chapter 3
General introductions to social science research methods
Babbie, E. (2015). The Practice of Social Research (14th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Neuman, L. W. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (Seventh Edition). Essex: Pearson.
Sociological work on research methods
Firebaugh, G. (2008). Seven Rules for Social Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Exploratory research
Abbott, A. (2004). Methods of Discovery: Heuristics for the Social Sciences. New York, NY: WW Norton & Company.
Swedberg, R. (2014). The Art of Social Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Case study research
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing Qualitative Research. London: Sage publications.
Whyte, W. F. (2012 [1943]). Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Survey research
Fowler Jr, F. J. (2013). Survey Research Methods. London: Sage publications.
Big data research
Golder, S. A., & Macy, M. W. (2014). Digital Footprints: Opportunities and Challenges for Online Social Research. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 129-152.
Salganik, M. J. (2017). Bit by Bit: Social Research in the Digital Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Experimental research
Willer, D., & Walker, H. A. (2007). Building Experiments: Testing Social Theory. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Replication
Firebaugh, G. (2008). Seven Rules for Social Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Further Reading Chapter 4
The origins of sociological perspectives
Collins, R. (1994). Four Sociological Traditions: Selected Readings. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Morrison, K. (2006). Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought (2nd ed.). Ontario: Sage Publications Ltd.
Sociological themes and topics
Boudon, R. (1981). The Logic of Social Action: An Introduction to Sociological Analysis. London: Taylor & Francis.
Ultee, W. (2001). Problem Selection in the Social Sciences: Methodology. In N. Smelser, & P. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 12110-12117). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Causal explaining or subjective understanding
Boudon, R. (1987). The Individualistic Tradition in Sociology. In J. C. Alexander, B. Giesen, R. Munch & N. J. Smelser (Eds.), The Micro-Macro Link (pp. 45-71). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Demeulenaere, P. (Ed.). (2011). Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Esser, H. (1996). What is Wrong with ‘Variable Sociology’? European Sociological Review, 12(2), 159-166.
Weber, M. (2002 [1905]). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and Other Writings. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Multilevel framework
Alexander, J. C., Giesen, B., Munch, R., & Smelser, N. J. (Eds.). (1987). The Micro-Macro Link. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Johnson, D. P. (2008). Contemporary Sociological Theory: An Integrated Multi-Level Approach. New York, NY: Springer.
Further Reading Chapter 5
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Merton, R. K. (1948). The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. The Antioch Review, 8(2), 193-210.
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the Classroom. The Urban Review, 3(1), 16-20.
Conformity
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of Independence and Conformity: I. A Minority of One Against a Unanimous Majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1-70.
Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications. New York, NY: Free Press.
Phillips, D. P. (1974). The Influence of Suggestion on Suicide: Substantive and Theoretical Implications of the Werther Effect. American Sociological Review, 39(3), 340-354.
Informational and normative social influence
Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A Study of Normative and Informational Social Influences upon Individual Judgment. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51(3), 629-636.
Social learning theory
Cialdini, R. B. (2007). Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers.
Kahan, D. M., Peters, E., Wittlin, M., Slovic, P., Ouellette, L. L., Braman, D., & Mandel, G. (2012). The Polarizing Impact of Science Literacy and Numeracy on Perceived Climate Change Risks. Nature Climate Change, 2(10), 732.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Groux.
Popularity of cultural products
Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew Effect in Science. Science, 159(3810), 56-63.
Salganik, M. J., Dodds, P. S., & Watts, D. J. (2006). Experimental Study of Inequality and Unpredictability in an Artificial Cultural Market. Science, 311(5762), 854-856.
Diffusion of Innovations
Rogers, E. M. (2010). Diffusion of Innovations. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Ryan, B., & Gross, N. C. (1943). The Diffusion of Hybrid Seed Corn in Two Iowa Communities. Rural Sociology, 8(1), 15-24.
Appendix: how to model social diffusion?
Valente, T. W. (2010). Social Networks and Health: Models, Methods, and Applications. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Further Reading Chapter 6
What are social norms?
Elster, J. (2009). Social Norms and the Explanation of Behavior. In P. Hedström, & P. Bearman (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology (pp. 195-217). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Hechter, M., & Opp, K. (Eds.). (2001). Social Norms. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Social control theory
Homans, G. C. (2017 [1951]). The Human Group. Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Internalized norms
Miles, A. (2015). The (Re)Genesis of Values: Examining the Importance of Values for Action. American Sociological Review, 80(4), 680-704.
Legal norms
Bicchieri, C. (2005). The Grammar of Society: The Nature and Dynamics of Social Norms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Patterson, O. (2014). Making Sense of Culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 40, 1-30.
Why do norms emerge?
Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243-1248.
Ullmann-Margalit, E. (2015 [1977]). The Emergence of Norms. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Cultural maladaptation and norm change
Harris, M. (1989). Cows, Pigs, Wars, & Witches: The Riddles of Culture. New York, NY: Random House.
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1993). The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion, our Social Skin (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Willer, R., Kuwabara, K., & Macy, M. W. (2009). The False Enforcement of Unpopular Norms. American Journal of Sociology, 115(2), 451-490.
The dynamics of group distinction
Bourdieu, P. (2010 [1979]). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Elias, N. (2000 [1939]). The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations (2nd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers.
Lieberson, S. (2000). A Matter of Taste: How Names, Fashions, and Culture Change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Appendix: using game theory to understand norms
Axelrod, R. M. (2006 [1984]). The Evolution of Cooperation. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Voss, T. (2001). Game-Theoretical Perspectives on the Emergence of Social Norms. In M. Hechter, & K. Opp (Eds.), Social Norms (pp. 105-136). New York, NY: The Russel Sage Foundation.
Further Reading Chapter 7
General introductory readings on social network analysis
Bruggeman, J. (2013). Social Networks: An Introduction. Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2009). Connected: The Surprising Power of our Social Networks and how they Shape our Lives. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
Degenne, A., & Forsé, M. (1999). Introducing Social Networks. London, United Kingdom: Sage.
Kadushin, C. (2012). Understanding Social Networks: Theories, Concepts, and Findings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Prell, C. (2012). Social Network Analysis: History, Theory and Methodology. London, United Kingdom: Sage.
Scott, J. (2017 [1991]). Social Network Analysis (4th ed.). London, United Kingdom: Sage.
Friendship paradox
Feld, S. L. (1991). Why Your Friends have More Friends than You Do. American Journal of Sociology, 96(6), 1464-1477.
Personal networks
Granovetter, M. (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360-1380.
Network density and transitivity
Granovetter, M. (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360-1380.
The small-world phenomenon
Milgram, S. (1967). The Small World Problem. Psychology Today, 1, 61-67.
Watts, D. J. (2003). Six Degrees: The Science of a Connected Age. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.
Network change: loss-of-community?
Fischer, C. S. (2005). Bowling Alone: What's the Score? Social Networks, 27(2), 155-167.
Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Networks and social capital
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95-S120.
Gambetta, D. (Ed.). (1988). Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Basil Blackwell.
Granovetter, M. (1992). Problems of Explanation in Economic Sociology. In N. Nohria, & R. Eccles G. (Eds.), Networks and Organizations (pp. 25-56). Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Häuberer, J. (2011). Social Capital Theory: Towards a Methodological Foundation. Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer.
Further Reading Chapter 8
Groups unite and divide
Simmel, G. (1955). Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliations. New York, NY: Free Press.
Group segregation
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415-444.
The causes of group segregation
Blau, P. (1994). Structural Contexts of Opportunities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Feld, S. L. (1981). The Focused Organization of Social Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 86(5), 1015-1035.
Kalmijn, M. (1998). Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, Trends. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 395-421.
Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Merton, R. K. (1954). Friendship as a Social Process: A Substantive and Methodological Analysis. Freedom and Control in Modern Society, 18(1), 18-66.
Wimmer, A., & Lewis, K. (2010). Beyond and Below Racial Homophily: ERG Models of a Friendship Network Documented on Facebook. American Journal of Sociology, 116(2), 583-642.
In-group favoritism
Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. In W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Social context and in-group favoritism
Semyonov, M., Raijman, R., & Gorodzeisky, A. (2006). The Rise of Anti-Foreigner Sentiment in European Societies, 1988-2000. American Sociological Review, 71(3), 426-449.
Group threat theory
Blumer, H. (1958). Race Prejudice as a Sense of Group Position. The Pacific Sociological Review, 1(1), 3-7.
Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York, NY: Wiley.
Schlueter, E., & Scheepers, P. (2010). The Relationship between Outgroup Size and Anti-Outgroup Attitudes: A Theoretical Synthesis and Empirical Test of Group Threat-and Intergroup Contact Theory. Social Science Research, 39(2), 285-295.
Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.
Appendix: preference or opportunity?
Kalmijn, M. (1998). Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, Trends. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 395-421.
Further Reading Chapter 9
Happiness
Rosling, H., Rosling, O., & Rosling Ronnlund, A. (2018). Factfulness. London, United Kingdom: Sceptre.
Veenhoven, R. (2010). Greater Happiness for a Greater Number. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(5), 605-629.
Social class and status
Ridgeway, C. L. (2014). Why Status Matters for Inequality. American Sociological Review, 79(1), 1-16.
Treiman, D. J. (1977). Occupational Prestige in Comparative Perspective. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Weber, M. (1978 [1922]). Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Income and wealth
Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always do Better. London: Allen Lane.
Long-term changes in stratification
Milanovic, B. (2016). Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Ascription and achievement
Blau, P., & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American Occupational Structure. New York, NY: Free Press.
Modernization-mobility theory
Marks, G. N. (2014). Education, Social Background and Cognitive Ability: The Decline of the Social. Abingdon: Routledge.
Treiman, D. J. (1970). Industrialization and Social Stratification. Sociological Inquiry, 40(2), 207-234.
Cultural reproduction theory
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. (1990 [1977]). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.
Jæger, M. M., & Breen, R. (2016). A Dynamic Model of Cultural Reproduction. American Journal of Sociology, 121(4), 1079-1115.
The Great Gatsby Curve
Jerrim, J., & Macmillan, L. (2015). Income Inequality, Intergenerational Mobility, and the Great Gatsby Curve: Is Education the Key? Social Forces, 94(2), 505-533.
Further Reading Chapter 10
Social capital
Burt, R. S. (2004). Structural Holes and Good Ideas. American Journal of Sociology, 110(2), 349-399.
Burt, R. S. (2005). Brokerage and Closure. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Granovetter, M. (2018). Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers (2nd Edition). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Lin, N., Cook, K., & Burt, R. S. (Eds.). (2001). Social Capital: Theory and Research. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Group affiliation and discrimination
Blank, R. M., Dabady, M., & Citro, C. F. (Eds.). (2004). Measuring Racial Discrimination. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Inequality of Outcomes, Opportunities and Returns
Hout, M. (2015). A Summary of what we Know about Social Mobility. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 657(1), 27-36.
Gender Inequality
Charles, M., & Grusky, D. (2004). Occupational Ghettos: The Worldwide Segregation of Women and Men. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Charles, M., Harr, B., Cech, E., & Hendley, A. (2014). Who Likes Math Where? Gender Differences in Eighth-Graders’ Attitudes Around the World. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 24(1), 85-112.
Hakim, C. (2000). Work-Lifestyle Choices in the 21st Century: Preference Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pager, D. (2007). The use of Field Experiments for Studies of Employment Discrimination: Contributions, Critiques, and Directions for the Future. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 609(1), 104-133.
Further Reading Chapter 11
International Migration
Castles, S., De Haas, H., & Miller, M. J. (2013). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. New York, NY: Palgrave.
Integration: what does it mean?
Alba, R., & Nee, V. (1997). Rethinking Assimilation Theory for a New Era of Immigration. International Migration Review, 31(4), 826-874.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5-34.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2006). Immigrant America: A Portrait (Third Edition). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Integration: changes over time?
Alba, R., & Foner, N. (2015). Strangers no More: Immigration and the Challenges of Integration in North America and Western Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Bean, F. D., & Stevens, G. (2003). America's Newcomers: Dynamics of Diversity. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Drouhot, L. G., & Nee, V. (2019). Assimilation and the Second Generation in Europe and America: Blending and Segregating Social Dynamics between Immigrants and Natives. Annual Review of Sociology, 45, in press.
Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American Life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Waters, M. C., & Jiménez, T. R. (2005). Assessing Immigrant Assimilation: New Empirical and Theoretical Challenges. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 105-125.
Integration: social contexts effects?
Foner, N., & Alba, R. (2008). Immigrant Religion in the US and Western Europe: Bridge Or Barrier to Inclusion? International Migration Review, 42(2), 360-392.
Koopmans, R. (2010). Trade-Offs between Equality and Difference: Immigrant Integration, Multiculturalism and the Welfare State in Cross-National Perspective. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(1), 1-26.
Model, S., Fisher, G., & Silberman, R. (1999). Black Carribeans in Comparative Perspective. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 25, 187-212.
Case study: culture of honor
Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Integration: selective or spillover effects?
Zhou, M. (1997). Segmented Assimilation: Issues, Controversies, and Recent Research on the New Second Generation.International Migration Review, 31(4), 975-1008.
The dynamics of residential segregation
Macy, M. W., & Willer, R. (2002). From Factors to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-Based Modeling. Annual Review of Sociology, 28(1), 143-166.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Schelling, T. C. (2006 [1978]). Micromotives and Macrobehavior. New York, NY: WW Norton & Company.
Appendix: the Schelling segregation model
Squazzoni, F. (2012). Agent-Based Computational Sociology. Chichester, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.
Further Reading Chapter 12
Is the world getting worse?
Rosling, H., Rosling, O., & Rosling Ronnlund, A. (2018). Factfulness. London, United Kingdom: Sceptre.
Wealth and health
Deaton, A. (2013). The Great Escape: Health, Wealth, and the Origins of Inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Peace and safety
Pinker, S. (2011). The Better Angels of our Nature: A History of Violence and Humanity. London: Penguin.
Pinker, S. (2018). Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Rationalization
Chase-Dunn, C., & Lerro, B. (2016). Social Change: Globalization from the Stone Age to the Present. Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. New York, NY: Random House.
Henrich, J. (2015). The Secret of our Success: How Culture is Driving Human Evolution, Domesticating our Species, and Making Us Smarter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Technological progress
Diamond, J. (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, NY: WW Norton & Company.
Nolan, P., & Lenski, G. (2011). Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology (11th ed.). Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
Scientization
Drori, G., Meyer, J. W., Ramirez, F. O., & Schofer, E. (2003). Science in the Modern World Polity: Institutionalization and Globalization. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
McDonaldization
Ritzer, G. (2011). The McDonaldization of Society (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Value change
Hofstede, G. (2001 [1980]). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Inglehart, R., & Welzel, C. (2005). Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Welzel, C. (2013). Freedom Rising: Human Empowerment and the Quest of Emancipation. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Population change
Lesthaeghe, R. (2010). The Unfolding Story of the Second Demographic Transition. Population and Development Review, 36(2), 211-251.
The dynamics of modernization
Mesoudi, A. (2011). Cultural Evolution: How Darwinian Theory can Explain Human Culture and Synthesize the Social Sciences. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Further Reading Chapter 13
What is religion?
Davie, G. (1990). Believing without Belonging: Is this the Future of Religion in Britain? Social Compass, 37(4), 455-469.
Johnstone, R. L. (2016 [1975]). Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion (8th ed.). Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Voas, D., & Crockett, A. (2005). Religion in Britain: Neither Believing nor Belonging. Sociology, 39(1), 11-28.
Did religions solve the problem of human cooperation?
Durkheim, E. (2001 [1912]). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Norenzayan, A. (2015). Big Gods: How Religion Transformed Cooperation and Conflict. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
The stickiness factor of religion
Sherkat, D. E., & Wilson, J. (1995). Preferences, Constraints, and Choices in Religious Markets: An Examination of Religious Switching and Apostasy. Social Forces, 73(3), 993-1026.
Secularization in Western Europe
De Graaf, N. D. (2013). Secularization: Theoretical Controversies Generating Empirical Research. In R. Wittek, T. Snijders & V. Nee (Eds.), The Handbook of Rational Choice Social Research (pp. 321-354). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Voas, D., & Chaves, M. (2016). Is the United States a Counterexample to the Secularization Thesis?American Journal of Sociology, 121(5), 1517-1556.
Modernization and secularization
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2004). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Existential insecurity theory
Malinowski, B. (2004 [1948]). Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing.
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2004). Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.