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A

accent

A distinctive way of pronouncing a language, e.g., a way of speaking typical of a particular group of residents in a region

acceptance of difference

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), individuals in this phase accept the existence of culturally different ways of organizing human existence, although they may not like or agree with them

accommodation (conflict) style

This communication style emphasizes an indirect and emotionally restrained approach to dealing with conflict

acculturation

The process through which an individual is socialized into a new cultural environment

acculturation strategies

The ways that individuals and ethnocultural groups respond to the process of acculturation

acculturative stress

A negative psychological reaction to the experiences of acculturation, often characterized by anxiety, depression, and a variety ofpsychosomatic problems

acquaintance

See casual friend

active listening

Noticing how and when ideas are conveyed as well as what is not being said

‘acts of identity’

Dimensions of oneself (e.g., age, gender, class, nationality, ethnicity, personality) and the degree of social or ethnic solidarity with one’s communication partner are conveyed through language choice and use

adaptation

The act or process of adjusting or adapting to a new cultural environment

adaptation to difference

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), individuals in this phase can expand their own worldviews to understand other ways of being and behave in culturally appropriate ways

adaptor

Gesture ormovement that satisfies personal or bodily needs (e.g., scratching, yawning)

additive bilingualism

A process whereby one’s first language and culture continue to be nurtured as one’s second language develops

affect display

The use of physical movement (e.g., facial expressions, posture) to convey the strength of one’s feelings or emotions

affective competence

The emotional and motivational capacity to cope with the challenges of living in a new environment

affective conflict

A type of conflict that centers on an emotional conflict between parties

affective sensitivity

See intercultural (affective) sensitivity

affirmative action

Education, business, or employment policies that aim to redress the negative, historical impact of discrimination by taking factors such as race, sex, religion, gender, or national origin into consideration in hiring/promotion situations

age identity

How people feel and think about themselves and others in relation to age

ageism

The stereotyping or discrimination of a person or group of people based on their age

ageist language

Language that is used to convey stereotypes of people based on their age

ageist stereotyping

The categorizing of individuals into groups according to their age and then ascribing certain characteristics and behaviors to all people of that age group (e.g., teenagers, Generation X, old folks)

anti-Christian sentiments

Opposition to or objection to Christians and the practice of Christianity, which can lead to prejudice, discrimination, racism, and/or acts of violence against Christians

anti-discrimination legislation

A set of laws thatexists to protect the rights of individuals and promote equality among people regardless of their differences (e.g., sex, gender, religion, ethnicity, social class, physical ability)

anti-racist legislation

Regulations or laws protecting human rights in certain sectors of society

anti-Semitism

Hostility, prejudice, discrimination, or racist acts against Jews

anxiety/uncertainty management theory (AUM)

A theory developed by W. Gudykunst (1985) that suggests that one’s level of stress or anxiety subsides as one gains more knowledge and understanding of one’s communication partner(s)

appearance message

The nonverbal signals (e.g., clothing, mannerisms) that facilitate judgments about an individual’s personality, abilities, and other attributes

appropriate communication

 Communication that enhances a relationship

appropriate intercultural communication

Communication that enhances intercultural relationships from the perspective of both interactants

artifact

An object created or shaped by humans, usually for a practical purpose

ascribed identity

The identity that others assign to us (or we give to someone else)

ascription

The process of ascribing or assigning an identity to someone else

assimilation

The process whereby immigrants do not retain their original cultural identity and link to their heritage/culture; instead, they seek close interaction with the host culture and adopt the cultural values, norms, and traditions of the new society

asylum seeker

An individual who is seeking protection as a refugee and is waiting for his or her claim to be assessed by a country that has signed the Geneva Convention on Refugees

asynchronous communication

A type of e-communication thatoccurs without the need for individuals to be online at the same time, e.g., the receiver of an e-mail message may not read it until several hours or days after it has been sent

attitude

An emotional (positive or negative) response to people, ideas, and objects

audience design framework

A scheme developed byAllan Bell (1984)to explain observed variations in speech styles

avoidance strategy

Deliberate steps taken to avoid an uncomfortable situation

avowal

The process of conveying what self-identity(ies) one wishes others to acknowledge

avowed identity

The identity that an individual wishes to present or claim in an interaction

B

behavioral (intercultural) adroitness

Skills that are needed for one to be interculturally competent, e.g., message skills, knowledge regarding appropriate self-disclosure, behavioral flexibility, interaction management, social skills

behavioral uncertainty

One’s uncertainty about how one’s communication partner will behave or act

beliefs

Learned assumptions and convictions about concepts, events, people, and ways of being that are held to be true by an individual or a group

best friend

Someone who is especially close to you

bias

A personal preference, like or dislike, which can interfere with one’s ability to be objective, impartial, and without prejudice

bicultural

An individual who is culturally competent in two cultural contexts (e.g., his or her original home environment and the host environment)

bilingual

Using or able to use two languages with equal or nearly equal fluency

bilingual identity

A hybrid sense of self linked to the use of two languages

biracial

Having parents of two different races

bisexual

Having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to individuals who are not from one particular sex

body language

A form of human nonverbal communication consisting of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements  (See kinesics)

business acumen

One’s ability to understand business situations and make appropriate decisions in a short amount of time

business ethics

Principles that guide behavior in business

business etiquette

Rules that guide social behavior in workplace situations

business netiquette

Guidelines for courtesy in the use of email and the Internet for communication purposes in business

business protocol

The discourse, nonverbal behavior, dress, procedures, and social conventions that are expected within a particular company or organization

C

casual friend

A person you see from time to time who is not a particularly close friend

casual intercultural dating

Individuals from different cultural backgrounds who spend some time with each other socially and perhaps have sex without necessarily expecting the commitments of a more serious romantic relationship

casual intercultural relationship

A physical and emotional relationship between two people from different cultural backgrounds who may have a sexual relationship without necessarily expecting the commitments of a more serious romantic relationship

channel

The way in which a message is conveyed from one person to another, e.g., through speech, writing, and nonverbal signals

chronemics

The study of how people use and structure time

citizenship

The relationship between the individual and the state and the need for citizens to understand the economic and political processes, structures, institutions, laws, rights, and responsibilities within the system that governs the state

class identity

A sense of belonging or attachment to a group that shares similar economic, occupational, or social status

classism

Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class

climate

‘the long-term regional or even global average of temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades’ (NASA n.d.)

climate change

 a broad range of changes in global weather patterns created predominantly by burning fossil fuels

close friend

Someone who can be relied on to provide emotional support and perhaps lend a hand when needed

co-culture

Smaller, coherent collective groups that exist within a larger dominant culture and which are often distinctive because of race, social class, gender, etc.

co-habitation

Living together in a sexual relationship without being legally married

co-national

Anindividual from one’s home nation

code of ethics

Guidelines that spell out what is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behavior in everyday life as well as in professional contexts

code-mixing

The mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech

code-switching

Changing between different languages when communicating

cognitive (intercultural) awareness

Knowledge of one’s own personal identities/cultures and understanding of how cultures differ

cognitive competence

Knowledge of the host language and culture, history, social institutions, and rules or norms of interpersonal conduct in specific situations

cognitive conflict

A type of conflict that centers on the completion of a task

cognitive uncertainty

Uncertainty about the ways in which an individual’s culturally influenced attitudes and beliefs affect his or her way of thinking

collectivism

Interdependence and social cohesion are emphasized so that the needs and wants of groups are given priority over individuals

communication

A symbolic, dynamic process by which we create and share meaning with others

communication accommodation theory (CAT)

A theory developed by Howard Giles and his colleagues that posits that people in intercultural interactions adjust their communication toward or away from their communication partner, conveying different aspects of their identities

communication adaptability

The ability to modify one’s interaction behaviors and goals to meet the specific needs of the situation

communication competence

The ability to achieve one’s goals in a way that is acceptable to both communication partners

communication style

The way individuals or a group of individuals prefer to communicate with others

communicative competence

What a speaker needs to know to be able to use language appropriately and effectively in specific social/cultural settings

community of practice  (CoP) 

A group of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and gradually learn how to do it better through interaction with more experienced individuals on a regular basis

computer-mediated communication (CMC)

Communication that is facilitated by computer technologies (e.g., the use of two or more networked computers)

conational

A member of the same nation

conflict

An expressed struggle between interdependent individuals or groups over perceived incompatible interests, goals, values, and resources

conflict face negotiation theory

A theorydeveloped by Stella Ting-Toomey which addresses the ways face-losing and face-saving behaviors influence intercultural conflict situations

conflict facework competence

The use ofculturally/linguistically appropriate and effective facework negotiation skills in conflict situations

conflict interaction style

Patterned responses to conflict situations

conflict management

The process by which individuals or groups try to find a satisfying outcome in conflict situations

conflict management practices

Steps that individuals or groups adopt to resolve conflicts

conflict management style 

Preferred ways of dealing with conflict situations

conflict negotiation strategies

Preferred strategies for negotiating conflicts

conflict script

A routinized sequence of verbal and nonverbal actions in a dispute

conflict style

A preferred way of behaving in conflict situations

Confucian dynamism

A value dimension that aims to account for particular cultural characteristics and behaviors (Confucian values) that are prevalent in East Asian nations, e.g., persistence, a long-term orientation to time (See also Hofstede’s Value-Orientations Framework)

‘conscious’ culture

Cultural elements that are visible, explicit, and able to be sensed

consecutive interpreting

Interpreting that takes place after the speaker has finished

constructive conflict communication skills

 The ability to manage a conflict situation appropriately and effectively by way of skillful interpersonal conflict management skills and verbal and nonverbal communication, whether in a first or second language

contact hypothesis

George Allport’s notion that increased contact between different cultural or ethnic groups can lead to mutual acceptance and reduced levels of tension/prejudice provided that certain conditions are met

contested identity

Facets or elements of one’s identity that are not recognized or accepted by the people one is in contact with

context

The overall environment in which communication occurs (e.g., physical, psychological, sociocultural, political, sociorelational)

convergence

The act of adjusting one’s communication (e.g., verbal, nonverbal) and stressing particular identities to become more aligned with one’s addressees to convey solidarity and reduce social distance

corporate culture

The culture of a particular business or organization

crimes against humanity

The systemic practice of serious offenses against people that are either carried out or condoned by a government (e.g. widespread murder, religious persecution, rapes as a weapon of war)

critical cultural awareness/political education (savoir s’engager)

The ability to critically evaluate perspectives, practices, and products in one’s own and other cultures

critical discourse analysis

A form of discourse analysis that aims to bring about social change by disclosing connections of hidden relationships encoded in language that may not be immediately evident

critical (deep) reflection

The process of analyzing, reconsidering, and questioning intercultural experiences with the aim of developing a more in-depth understanding of internal and external factors that influenced the outcome

critical intercultural communication  studies

Research that critically examines the role of power and positioning in language and intercultural communication within a particular context

critical intercultural speaker

 An individual (second language speaker) who is able to negotiate between his or her own cultural, social, and political identifications and representations with those of the other, and, in the process, become critically aware of the complex nature of cultural identities in an intercultural encounter (See also intercultural speaker)

cross-cultural adaptation

The process whereby individuals from one cultural context move to a different cultural context and strive to learn the societal norms, customs, and language of the host culture in order to function in the new environment

cross-cultural communication research

Investigations that compare and contrast native discourse and ways of being (e.g., communication styles) in different cultures

cultural awareness

An understanding of how an individual’s cultural background may inform his or her values, behavior, beliefs, and basic assumptions

cultural display rules

Cultural rules that influence whether and how to express one’s emotions in a particular situation

cultural distance

The gap between the ways of being of two different cultural groups

cultural fluency

Recognition that culture profoundly shapes who we are and how we cooperate and engage conflict

cultural identity

A social identity that is influenced by one’s membership or affiliation with particular cultural groups

cultural identity formation

The formation of a sense of belonging or attachment to a particular cultural group that develops through shared experiences and the teachings of other members of the group

cultural intelligence

The ability and competence to use all the human senses to empathize and communicate effectively and appropriately with people who have different cultural backgrounds

cultural maintenance

The effort of immigrants or minorities to sustain elements of their home culture or heritage (e.g., preserve core values, traditions, language(s), and other ways of being) especially when faced with pressure to adopt the customs of the new, dominant culture (e.g., the majority group)

cultural membership

One’s affiliation or sense of belonging with a particular cultural group

cultural norms

Shared expectations of appropriate behaviors in certain situations and contexts

cultural relativism

The view that beliefs, value systems, and social practices are culturally relative, that is, no culture is inherently superior to another

cultural schema

A mental structure in which our knowledge and understanding of the world is organized to facilitate our thinking, communication, etc.

cultural script

Representations of cultural norms that are widely held in a given society and are reflected in verbal and nonverbal acts (e.g., a sequence of expressions and behaviors in certain situations)

cultural similarity

The degree of dissimilarity between one’s home culture and the host culture in terms of language, values, beliefs, diet, nonverbal behaviors, customs, ‘cultures of learning’, religion, etc.

cultural socialization

See enculturation

cultural space

A physical or virtual place where individuals have a sense of community and culture, e.g.,a neighborhood, region, virtual space

cultural synergy

The combined power of people from diverse cultural backgrounds working together to create a greater, stronger effect than if they were separate

culture

A community or group that shares a common history, traditions, norms, and imaginings in a particular cultural space (e.g., a neighborhood, region, virtual space)

‘culture as nation’ perspective

An orientation toward culture in which nations or large communities are viewed as homogeneous and the diversity within is largely ignored

culture broker (intermediary)

Anindividual who is tasked with bridging cultural differences

culture broking

The act of bridging or mediating between groups or people who have different cultural backgrounds in order to facilitate communication and reduce conflict

culture-general intercultural education

A form of intercultural education that broadly centers on the development of the knowledge, skills, and mindset that can help individuals become more attuned to their linguistic and cultural environments and engage in constructive intercultural interactions, no matter where they are in the world

‘culture of learning’

The norms, values, and expectations of teachers and learners that influence classroom activities in a particular cultural setting

culture-sensitive knowledge

Awareness of the conceptions, beliefs, values, and ways of being associated with a culture

culture shock (confusion)

Disorientation and discomfort that an individual may experience when entering an unfamiliar cultural environment

culture-specific intercultural education

A form of intercultural education that primarily aims at helping individuals learn to communicate effectively and appropriately in a particular target culture

cyber friendship

A personal connection or affiliation forged between people online

cyber identity

See virtual identity

cyberculture

The culture that develops through the use of computer networks for communication, business, and entertainment

D

decoding

The process by which the receiver tries to understand the meaning of a message that is being sent

decorative ornamentation

Accessories or materials used for decoration

deculturation

The unlearning of cultural habits

deep-level diversity

Differences among individuals and groups that are not easily observable such as attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, skills, and values or worldviews

defense against difference

 According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), individuals in this ethnocentric phase view their own culture/way of life uncritically as the best, and overt negative stereotyping of others is common

defense/reversal

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), in this ethnocentric phase one’s own culture is devalued, and another culture or way of life is romanticized as superior

denial of difference

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), individuals in this ethnocentric phase experience their own culture as the only ‘real’ one, and other cultures are either not noticed or are understood in a simplistic way

developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS)

A framework developed by Milton Bennett to depict the process of becoming interculturally sensitive; it describes various ways that individuals perceive and react to cultural difference  

dialect

A variety of language used in a specific region

direct communication

The speaker’s intentions and views are made clear by the use of explicit verbal messages and a forthright tone of voice

direct conflict style

A verbally direct and confrontational approach to dealing with conflict

direct eye contact

Looking into the eyes of one’s communication partner

direct language

The use of precise, explicit discourse

discourse

Written or spoken communication

discourse analysis

Investigations of spoken or written language in use

discourse community

A group of people who share common social space and history as well as ways of communicating their values and goals

discourse competence

The ability to understand and produce the range of spoken, written, and visual texts that are characteristics of a language

discrimination

The prejudicial or unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership, or perceived membership, in a particular group or category

discriminatory language

Derogatory terms, stereotypes, or generalizations about an individual or group (e.g., ethnic, gender, minority, religious)

discussion (conflict) style

 A verbally direct approach to conflict situations that is tempered by an emotionally restrained response

divergence

 The distancing of oneself from one’s interlocutors by accentuating differences in one’s speech (e.g., accent, communication style), identities, or nonverbal behaviors (e.g., gestures, personal distance)

diversity

Differences among humans in terms of such aspects as culture, language, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, age, physical/cognitive abilities, national origin, physical attributes, sexual orientation, ethnic affiliation, regional differences, religious beliefs, political beliefs, or other ideologies.

dual identity

Possessing two identities (e.g., a local and global self)

dynamic conflict code-switching

Adopting one’s conflict style to meet the other conflict party’s communication approach

dynamic (conflict) style

The use of indirect strategies and emotionally intense expression to deal with major disagreements or conflicts

E

economic justice

Economic policies that distribute benefits equally to all

education abroad

Education outside one’s home country (e.g.,  study abroad, internships, volunteering, directed travel with learning goals)

e-identity

See cyber identity

effective communication

Communication that achieves the desired results from the perspective of both the sender and receiver

effective intercultural communication

 Intercultural communication that achieves the desired results from the perspective of both the sender and receiver

emblem of identity

Markers of affiliation with a particular group (e.g., clothing, language, communication style, tattoos, flags)

emblem (emblematic gesture)

Direct nonverbal replacement for word(s) (e.g., OK signal in U.S.)

emoticon

Pictorial representations of facial expressions and other symbols that are meant to convey particular emotions

emotion regulation

The culturally influenced process of modifying one’s emotions and expressions in certain situations and contexts

emotional display

The expression of our emotions

emotional expression

Observable verbal and nonverbal actions that convey emotions

emotional intelligence

The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and display sensitivity to others’ feelings

emotional restraint

Controlling the expression of one’s emotions

emotionally expressive (conflict) style

A conflict style that is characterized by emotionally confrontational discourse and expression

emotionally restrained style

A conflict style that is characterized by emotional restraint and careful word choice

empathetic behavior

Verbal and nonverbal actions that indicate that one is attending to the messages of others

empathy

The ability to understand another person’s feelings and point of view

employment discrimination

See workplace discrimination

encoding

The process of putting an idea or message into a set of symbols (e.g., words, gestures)

enculturation

The learning of social norms, values, and practices in one’s home environment from an early age

engagement (conflict) style

A conflict stylecharacterized by a more verbally direct and confrontational or direct approach

English hegemony

The power and domination of English so that it brings about inequality and discrimination

Englishization

The spread of English throughout the world

essentialism

The belief that the attributes and behavior of socially defined groups can be explained by reference to cultural and/or biological characteristics believed to be inherent to the group (See also ‘culture as nation’, reductionism)

ethnic cleansing

The systematic and violent removal of an ethnic or religious group from a particular territory

ethnic group

A group of people who share a common cultural background and heritage

ethnic group strength

The relative status or standing of a particular ethnic group within the context of the dominant society

ethnic identity

An identity linked to one’s perceptions and emotions regarding one’s affiliation with one’s own ethnic group(s)

ethnic proximity/distance

The gap or degree of closeness between ethnic groups

ethnicity

A socially defined category based on such aspects as common ancestry, cuisine, dressing style, heritage, history, language or dialect, physical appearance, religion, symbols, traditions, or other cultural factors

ethics

Principles of conduct that help govern the behavior of individuals and groups

ethnocentric mindset

Away of thinking that holds that one’s cultural worldview and way of life are superior to all others

ethnocentricism

A point of view that views one’s group’s standards as the best and judges all other groups in relation to them

ethnorelative mindset

Away of thinking that is able to view another person’s cultural worldview and way of life from that person’s perspective

ethnorelativism

The ability tounderstand a communication practice or worldview from another person’s cultural frame of reference

expatriate

Anindividual who lives and/or works outside their country of origin

expectancy violation theory

A theory developed by Judee Burgoon thatposits that individuals have culturally based expectations about how people should behave in a communicative event, and when they do not perform as expected, miscommunication and negative perceptions may develop

extremism

The holding of extreme or fanatical political, racial, or religious views

eye contact

Direct visual contact with another person’s eyes

eye movement

The movement of the eye(s) that conveys meaning (e.g., rolling the eyes to convey contempt, direct gaze to convey interest)

F

face

The public self-image that one wants others to recognize and support

face-giving

See face-saving

face loss

Experienced by individuals when they are not treated in a way that respects their preferred self-identities (e.g., position, status, self-image)

face maintenance

The desire to project a positive image and avoid appearing weak or foolish

face management

Communicating respect and a positive regard for self and others

face-saving

Actions that protect or support an individual’s self-image or reputation

face threat

Challenges to an individual’s self-image

face-threatening act

Actions that cause someone to be humiliated

facework

 Verbal and nonverbal actions that individuals use to maintain or restore face loss and to uphold and honor face gain

facework strategies

Steps taken to manage face

facework style

Pattern of behaviors designed to manage face

facial expressions

Facial movements that convey one’s emotional state

fantasy identity

A sense of belonging that centers on characters from science fiction movies, comic books, and anime

feedback

Intentional or unintentional verbal or nonverbal signals that receivers give to a speaker to indicate they have processed what the speaker has said

feminine culture

A culture that promotes gender equality, interpersonal contact, flexible balancing of life and work, and group decisions

femininity

Gender roles that dictate certain roles and behaviors for women (e.g., modesty, tenderness)

‘friends with benefits’ 

A casual sexual relationship among friends who are not romantically or emotionally involved

friendship

A personal connection or affiliation forged between individuals

friendship network

A type of social network, includes individuals who are very close personal friends, acquaintances (e.g., those who are more distant), and ‘friends of friends’

functional fitness

 Knowing one’s way around in the new environment

G

gay

A person attracted to another person of the same sex (homosexual)

gay marriage

See same-sex marriage

gaze

That act of looking at someone or something

gender

One’s identification as male, female, both male and female, or neither

gender conflict

Conflict situations in which gender is a key factor

gender-crossing

Beginning life as a male and assuming female behaviors and characteristics (or vice versa) 

gender identity

The meanings and interpretations individuals hold about their self-images and expected other-images of femaleness and maleness

gender socialization

The process of developing gender identities in particular social and cultural contexts

gender stereotyping

Simplistic overgeneralizations about the gender characteristics, differences, and roles of males and females

gendered identities

An acknowledgment that multiple identities are shaped by one’s gender and that social identities overlap

generalization

A statement about common trends or elements in a group coupled with an understanding that more information is required to determine whether thegeneralization applies to a particular individual

genocide

The targeted killing of a particular ethnic, religious group

gesture

A movement or position of the hand, arm, body, head, or face that conveys an idea, opinion, or emotion

gift giving

The ritual of providing gifts to business clients

glass ceiling

An unseen barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to more senior positions in organizations, regardless of their qualifications or achievements

global citizen

An individual who identifies with being part of an emerging world community and whose actions contribute to building this community’s values and practices

global citizenship

Awareness of and commitment to societal justice for marginalized groups and care for the environment based on principles of equity, respect, and sharing

global citizenship activism

Assuming an activist role to cultivate ethical values, principles, and practices characteristic of global citizenship

global civic engagement

Recognition of local, state, national, and global community issues and response through actions such as volunteerism, political activism, and community participation

global competence

Possessing an open mind while actively seeking to understand different cultural norms and expectations, and using this knowledge to interact, communicate, and work effectively outside one’s environment

global competence model

A framework developed by W. Hunter (2004) to help international educators prepare individuals for a diverse workforce and society that necessitates intercultural and global competencies

global consciousness

Concern about the welfare of our planet

global English

The use ofEnglish internationally for business negotiations, multinational organizations, scientific communication, diplomacy, academic conferences, and international education

global ethics

Basic shared ethical values, criteria, and attitudes for peaceful coexistence among humans

global identity

An identity that affords an individual a sense of belonging or attachment to a worldwide culture and is often associated with the use of an international language

global knowledge

Anunderstanding of diverse cultures, languages, global events, and concerns

global nomad

An individual who has an international lifestyle (e.g., lives and works in more than one country for a long period of time), includes someone who has grown up in many different cultural contexts because his/her parents have frequently relocated (See also third culture individuals)

global-ready graduate

An individual who is adequately prepared for a diverse workforce and society that necessitates intercultural and global competencies

global village

The term coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s to refer to the way the world is ‘shrinking’ as people become increasingly interconnected through media and other communication advances

global warming

The long-term rising of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans that is bringing about droughts and floods

globalization

The growing tendency toward international interdependence in business, media, and culture.

globally competent person

An individual who has knowledge of current events, the capacity to empathize with others, the ability to maintain a positive attitude, second language competence, and an appreciation of foreign ways of doing things

GLOBE cultural framework

A framework developed by the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project to measure the relationship between societal culture, organizational culture, and leadership

GLOBE dimensions

Cultural differences in societal values and practicesidentified by the GLOBE project –institutional and group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, future orientation, assertiveness, performance orientation, and humane orientation

H

haptics

The use of touch in communication, including the type of contact as well as its frequency and intensity

harassment

Behaviors of an offensive or threatening nature

hedging

The use of cautious or vague language

hegemony

Domination through consent whereby the aims, ideas, and interests of the dominant class are so engrained that minorities go along with their own subordination and exploitation

heritage

Aspects that are inherited or linked to the past (e.g., language, rituals, preferences for music, certain foods, dress)

heritage language learning

The acquisition of a minority or indigenous language at home that typically is incomplete

heritage study abroad student

 A student who studies abroad in a location that is linked in some way (e.g., linguistically, culturally, historically) to his/her family or cultural background

heterosexual orientation

Individuals are attracted to persons of the other sex

heterosexuality

Sexual attraction to members of the opposite sex

high-contact culture

A kind of culture in which people display considerable interpersonal closeness or immediacy

high-context communication

 A style of communication in which most information is implicitly communicated through indirect, nonverbal, and mutually shared knowledge rather than expressed explicitly in words

high culture

Culture that is linked to the arts (e.g., fine paintings, classical music, literature)

Hofstede’s Value-Orientations Framework

The identification of systematic differences in national cultures by Geert Hofstede – power distance (PDI), individualism (IDV), uncertainty avoidance (UAI), and masculinity (MAS), with Confucian dynamism added later

Holocaust

A mass slaughter of people (e.g., Jews and Gypsies murdered by the Nazis during World War Two)

homogenization

The loss of linguistic and cultural distinctiveness through the process of globalization

homosexuality

Sexual attraction to members of the same sex

honor killing

The murder of a young woman by relatives who believe that her actions (e.g., premarital sex, refusal to accept an arranged marriage) have brought dishonor on the family

honorifics

Words (e.g., titles) or expressions in some languages that convey respect toward a social superior

horizontal-based facework

Informal symmetrical strategies/equal treatment

host communication competence

 The ability of a newcomer to decode and encode information in accordance with host cultural communication practices

host conformity pressure

The extent to which the host environment challenges newcomers, implicitly or explicitly, to adopt local norms of behavior

host national

A person from the host country

host receptivity

The degree to which the host environment welcomes newcomers into its interpersonal networks and offers them support

human migration

Physical movement by people from one place to another, sometimes over long distances

human rights

The basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, e.g., the right to life and liberty, freedom of thought and expression, and equality before the law

human trafficking

The illegal trade of human beings for sexual exploitation or forced labor

humor style

The ways individuals use humor in particular contexts and situations

hybrid (mixed) identity

  A sense of self with elements from multiple cultures

I

identity

Anindividual’s self-concept or sense of self

identity confusion

Anindividual who moves from one environment to another may feel caught between two distinct worlds (See also constructive marginality)

identity expansion

 The broadening of one’s sense of self through exposure to new ideas and practices

identity intensity

The degree of significance of a particular identity

identity labels

Terms used to categorize individuals or groups

identity salience

The degree to which an identity is prominent in a particular situation

identity shock (confusion)

Inconsistent, conflicting self-images that can involve the loss of communication competence and self-confidence in a new environment

ideology

A system of ideas that promotes the interests of a particular group of people

illustrators

Nonverbal actions that shape/illustrate what is being said (e.g., pointing)

imagined community

Individuals assume that people they associate with their group follow norms, practices, and beliefs similar to their own

immigration

Moving from one’s home country to reside in another country

inclusiveness

General acceptance and appreciation of cultural diversity within a community or society

independent self-construal

A self-perception that puts an emphasis on one’s autonomy and separateness from others

indirect communication

A style of communication that emphasizes the use of subtle, indirect forms of expression (e.g., hints, suggestions)

indirect conflict style

A non-confrontational style of conflict management

indirect language

The use of expressions that suggest or hint at ideas

individual racism

A person’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions that support or perpetuate racism

individualism

The tendency to emphasize the rights, identities, responsibilities, and independent action of the individual rather than the group (See also collectivism)

inequality

Unequal access to power and resources

information and communications technology (ICT)

The role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunication (e.g., wireless signals), computers, middleware, as well as necessary software, storage- and audio-visual systems, which allow users to create, access, store, transmit, and manipulate information

information technology (IT)

The application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data

ingroup

A social or cultural group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member

ingroup bias

Situations in which people give preferential treatment to those who are perceived to be in the same ingroup

ingroup-favoritism (ingroup bias)

Situations in which people give preferential treatment to those who are perceived to be in the same ingroup

ingroup favoritism principle

A positive attachment to and predisposition for norms that are related to one’s ingroup

ingroup members

People with whom you feel emotionally connected to

innate

Existing in one from birth

institutional racism

A kind of racism that can result in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society

integration

Immigrants take steps to maintain their cultural heritage and original cultural identity while developing harmonious relationships with host nationals

integration of difference

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), individuals in this phase do not have a definition of self that is central to any particular culture, and they are able to shift from one cultural worldview to another

integrative communication theory of cross-cultural adaptation

A theory proposed by Young Yun Kim (2001) to depict an individual’s gradual adaption to a new environment

intensity

The importance or strength of something (e.g., identity, value)

intentional communication

Two or more people consciously engage in interaction with a specific purpose in mind

interaction

The process of encoding and decoding messages

interactive communication

A two-way process involving the sending and receiving of messages

intercultural adroitness

See behavioral adroitness

intercultural attitudes (savoir être)

Curiosity and openness, readiness to suspend disbelief about others’ cultures, and belief about one’s own intercultural attitudes

intercultural awareness

See cognitive awareness

intercultural citizenship

The development of the competencies necessary to engage in political activity with people who have a different linguistic and cultural background

intercultural communication

Interpersonal communication that involves interaction between people who have a different cultural (and often linguistic) background

intercultural communication competence

The ability to communicate appropriately and effectively with individuals who have a different cultural (and often linguistic) background

intercultural communication research

Investigations of interpersonal interactions involving people who have diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds (also studies of the adjustment of newcomers in unfamiliar cultural settings)

intercultural communication skills

  The skills needed to interact appropriately and effectively in intercultural interactions (e.g., adaptability, empathy, cross-cultural awareness, intercultural mediation, intercultural sensitivity)

intercultural communicative competence

The abilities needed to communicate effectively and appropriately with people who are linguistically and culturally different from oneself

intercultural competence

The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, drawing on one’s intercultural attitudes, knowledge, and communication skills

intercultural conflict

The perceived or actual incompatibility of cultural values, situational norms, goals, face orientations, scarce resources, styles/processes, and/or outcomes in a face-to-face (or mediated) context

intercultural conflict competence

The mindful management of emotional frustrations and conflict interaction struggles largely due to cultural, linguistic, or ethnic group membership differences

intercultural conflict style model

Devised by Mitch Hammer (2004), this model is based on two core dimensions that he maintains are influenced by cultural values and beliefs: (1) the degree of directness when dealing with conflicts and (2) divergent ways of coping with the affective dimension of conflict interaction

intercultural cyber or online romance

Romantic relationships formed online

intercultural education

Education designed to help prepare students for responsible intercultural citizenship in our global community

intercultural effectiveness

The ability to interact with people from a different cultural background in ways that are respectful and appropriate

intercultural facework competence

The ability to manage vulnerable identity-based conflict situations appropriately, effectively, and adaptively

intercultural friendship

A personal connection or affiliation forged between people who have a different cultural background

intercultural gay (lesbian) romance

A romantic relationship between two males or two females

intercultural identity orientation

A flexible, open identity that is not rigidly tied to one’s home culture or the host culture

intercultural interaction

Communication between individuals from different subcultures, speech communities, discourse communities, etc.

intercultural intimate relationship

 A union between individuals who differ in terms of sociocultural background, ethnicity, race, religion, nationality, class, etc.

intercultural marriage

 A social union or legal contract between individuals from different cultural backgrounds who may possess differing values, worldviews, and personal philosophies

intercultural mediator

An individual who is able to interact appropriately and effectively with someone who has a different linguistic and cultural background (See also intercultural speaker)

intercultural mind/mindset

 An open mindset capable of understanding from within and from without both one’s own culture and other cultures (See also ethnorelativism)

interculturaloffline romantic relationships

Intercultural romances that are initiated and largely maintained through face-to-face interactions

intercultural political competence

The ability to take part in community activity and service with people with a different linguistic and cultural background

intercultural relationship

A relationship between individuals who have a different cultural background

intercultural romance

A close interpersonal relationship between individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds who share a romantic love for each other

intercultural (affective) sensitivity

A positive emotion that enables individuals to acknowledge and respect cultural differences

intercultural sensitivity

Within the context of the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), the developmental process that impacts an individual’s psychological ability to deal with cultural differences

intercultural speaker

A competent, flexible second language speaker who is able to establish positive intercultural relationships by drawing on/recognizing multiple identities and ways of being in intercultural interactions

intercultural transformation

A process of change in which border crossers develop a broadened sense of self that is more inclusive and intercultural

interculturality

 The forging of respectful, equitable links between individuals and groups from different cultural (and linguistic) backgrounds

interdependent self-construal

A self-perception that emphasizes one’s relatedness to other people

interethnic conflict (ethnic conflict)

A conflict situation between individuals or groups affiliated with different ethnic groups, whereby ethnicity is salient

interethnic marriage

Marriage between people with different ethnic backgrounds

interethnic relationship

A relationship between individuals affiliated with different ethnic groups

interfaith (interreligious) conflict (religious conflict)

Disputes or conflict situations between individuals or groups affiliated with different faiths, whereby religion is a salient issue

interfaith (interreligious) friendship

An interpersonal relationship or friendship bond between individuals who are affiliated with a different religion

interfaith (interreligious) identity

One’s sense of belonging to a particular religious group

interfaith (interreligious) marriage

A religious or civil union between partners professing different religions

intergenerational conflict

Disputes between individuals or groups from different generations, whereby age is a salient issue

intergroup conflict

Disputes that arise between two or more groups of people

intergroup relations

Relationships between groups of people (e.g., ethnic, national, religious)

intermediary

See mediator

international (world) citizen

See global citizen

international conflict

Disputes between different countries, conflict between people and organizations from different nation-states, intergroup conflicts within a nation that impact other nations

International Criminal Court (ICC)

A body established by the United Nations Security Council to try crimes against humanity (See also crimes against humanity)

international education

Education that takes place outside one’s home country

international intercultural relationship

  The ties that develop between people that bridge national, cultural, and citizenship differences

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

An alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet that serves as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language

international relationship

The ties that develop between individuals that bridge national cultural and citizenship lines

internationalization

Any systematic sustained effort designed to make higher education more responsive to the requirements and demands of an interconnected, global world

‘Internationalization at home’ (IaH)

The embedding of international/intercultural perspectives into local education systems to raise the global awareness, cultural understanding, and intercultural competence of faculty and students

Internet identity

An online social representation that an Internet user (or group) establishes in websites and other internet-based communities

interpersonal communication

A form of communication that involves a small number of people interacting with one another, usually for the purpose of managing relationships

interpersonal communication skills

Communication strategies and techniques that can enhance relationships and be enhanced through knowledge, practice, feedback, and reflection

interpersonal conflict

Aconflict or a struggle between two or more people who may or may not have similar linguistic and cultural backgrounds

interpersonal distance

The psychological ‘bubble’ or distance that individuals stand from one another in a particular cultural context

interpersonal relationship

 Close personal ties between two or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring 

interpreting

The act of translating spoken communication

interracial communication

Interactions between two people in a situational context where racial difference is a salient issue

interracial conflict

Individuals in a conflict situation whereby race or racial difference is a source of friction

interracial friendship

A relationship between friends who are affiliated with a different race

interracial marriage

A union between individuals who are regarded as members of different races

interracial relationship

A relationship between individuals who are regarded as members of a different race

interfaith (interreligious) friendship

An interpersonal relationship or friendship bond between individuals who are affiliated with a different religion

intimate intercultural couple

A romantic union between partners from different cultural backgrounds who may possess divergent beliefs, assumptions, and values

intimate space

The closest ‘bubble’ of space surrounding a person, which is reserved for private situations with those who are emotionally close, and if others invade this space, the individual may feel threatened

intracultural conflict

A struggle between individuals with similar linguistic and cultural backgrounds

intracultural interactions

The exchange of messages between people who share the same cultural background

intracultural relationship

Interpersonal bonds that form between individuals who share the same linguistic and cultural backgrounds

intrapersonal communication

 Language use or thought directed at oneself

intrapersonal conflict

The internal struggle that can occur within one’s own mind

intraracial relationship

Interpersonal relationships between individuals from the same socially constructed racial group

islamophobia

The fear, hatred of, prejudice, discrimination, or racist acts against the Islamic religion or Muslims in general

involuntary migrant

An individual is forced to move to another country or region

J

n/a

K

kinesics

A broad category of nonverbal actions that encompasses the study of body movement, e.g., body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Cultural Orientation Framework

A model developed by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)that identifies five problems or challenges that all cultures face and may respond to in diverse ways

knowledge (saviors)

Knowledge of social groups and related products and practices in one’s own culture as well as that of one’s intercultural communication partner

knowledge industries

Organizations that require a workforce with advanced scientific or technological knowledge and skills

L

language

A system comprised of vocabulary and rules of grammar that allows people to engage in verbal communication

language affiliation

One’s attitudes toward and feelings about the language

language anxiety

Degree of nervousness when using a second language

language death

A process whereby a language that has been used in a speech community gradually dies out (language extinction, linguistic extinction, or linguicide)

language expertise

An individual’s degree of proficiency in a particular language

language fatigue

Exhaustion that may arise when communicating in a second language

language identity

The relationship between one’s sense of self and the language one uses to communicate

language inheritance

Being born into a family or community where a particular language is spoken

language maintenance

The preservation of a language or language variety in a context where there is significant pressure for speakers to use the more prestigious or politically dominant language

language or linguistic rights

The right to choose the language(s) for communication in private and public places; the right to one’s own language in legal, administrative and judicial acts, language education, and the media

language shock (confusion)

The challenge of understanding and communicating in a second language in an unfamiliar environment

language socialization

The acquisition of linguistic, pragmatic, and other cultural knowledge through social experience

‘large culture’

Prescribed ethnic, national, and international entities

lesbian

A female who is sexually attracted to another female

lingua franca

A language which is used as the medium of communication between speakers who have a different first language

linguistic competence

The ability to apply knowledge of the rules of a standard version of the language to produce and interpret spoken and written language

linguistic determinism

The strong form of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which posits that the language we speak determines our ability to perceive and think about objects

linguistic relativity

The weaker version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which indicates that the language one speaks influences thinking patterns but does not determine them

linguistic similarity

The degree of similarity between one’s first language and the host language

linguistic style

An individual’s speaking pattern, including such features as degree of directness or indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such elements as jokes, sarcasm, figures of speech (e.g., metaphors, irony, hyperbole), stories, questions, silence, and apologies

local self

 Aregional or national identity

localism

A political philosophy that prioritizes the local, e.g., the local production and consumption of goods, local control of government, promotion of local culture/customs, and a local identity

long-term relationships

Interpersonal ties that endure many years

long-term sojourner

An individual who lives abroad for many years

low-contact culture

In this context, touch occurs in limited circumstances, and too much contact is viewed as intruding on an individual’s privacy or personal space

low-context communication

Explicit verbal messages are the norm, e.g., most of the information is conveyed directly in the transmitted message in order to make up for ambiguity in the context

low culture

(‘popular culture’ or ‘folk culture’)    Elements in society that have mass appeal, e.g., the sports, food, dress, manners, and other habits of the ‘common people’ who have limited education, money, and sophistication

M

majority identity

An individual’s identification with the dominant or majority group

marginality

Living at the edges or margins of society

marginalization

An acculturation strategy in which immigrants do not nurture their cultural heritage (e.g., first language, traditions) and also resist interacting with people in the host society

masculine cultures

Distinct differences in the gender roles and responsibilities of men and women

masculinity

The extent to which distinct gender roles are valued and certain qualities are regarded as characteristic of males (e.g. achievement, ambition, aggression)

mass media

A message created by a person or a group of people sent through a transmitting device to a large audience or market (e.g., television, movies, the Internet)

mediation

The settlement or negotiation of a conflict or dispute by an independent person or third party

mediator (intermediary)

An independent orthird party who facilitates negotiations and dialogue between the disputants

mental ability identity

 One’s identity, which is linked to one’s cognitive abilities (e.g., degree of intelligence), mental health (e.g., stable, depressed), and ability to function in everyday life

message

What is conveyed verbally (e.g., in speech, writing) or nonverbally from one person (the sender) to one or more persons (the receiver(s))

micro-term sojourner

People who stay abroad for less than three weeks

mindful awareness

Recognition of our own and others’ cultural ways of knowing and being and their effect on our intercultural interactions

mindful fluency

The ability to tune into our own cultural, linguistic, and personal habitual assumptions in intercultural interactions and learn from the unfamiliar other

mindful intercultural communicator

A flexible individual who displays affective, cognitive, and behavioral flexibility in intercultural interactions.

mindfulness

Being aware of our own assumptions, ideas, and emotions and those of our communication partners

minimization of difference

According to the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (DMIS), in this transitional phase, elements of one’s own cultural world view tend to be experienced as universal and while more open-minded, one has not yet developed a sophisticated grasp and appreciation of cultural differences that may affect intercultural communication

minority identity

One’s sense of belong to a minority group

misattribution

Inaccurate assumptions

monochronic time orientation

Atime system in which tasks tend to be done simultaneously and time is segmented into precise, small units

monocultural mindset

See ethnocentric mindset

monogamy

The practice of being married to only one person at a time

monolingual

Fluent in only one language

multicultural

Interculturally competent in multiple cultural contexts

multicultural identity

A psychological state of not possessing or being owned by a single culture

multilingual

The ability tospeak more than two languages

multilingual identity

A hybrid sense of self linked to the use of multiple languages

multinational

An individual, group, or organization affiliated with multiple countries

mutual-face concern

Concern for both parties’ images and the well-being of the relationship

mutual facework

The process of constructing a shared sense of identity

N

national identity

An individual’s affiliation with and sense of belonging to a state or nation

negative face

The desire to have autonomy and not be controlled by others

negative facework

The degree to which individuals protect their own privacy and freedom from interference

negotiation

A process by which individuals or groups resolve a dispute by holding discussions and coming to an agreement that is mutually acceptable

netizens

Individuals who actively engage in online interactions

netspeak

(chatspeak or cyber-slang)    An informal, concise, and expressive style

noise (interference)

Any disturbance or defect that interferes with or distorts the transmission of the message from one person to another

nonverbal codes

All symbols that are not words, e.g., bodily movements, use of space and time, clothing and adornments, sounds other than words

nonverbal communication

Communication without words through various channels (e.g., gestures, clothing, use of personal space, touch)

nonverbal cues

All potentially informative behaviors that are not purely linguistic in content

nonverbal expectancy violation theory

A theorydeveloped by Judee Burgoon (1978), which suggests that during the primary socialization process we build up expectations (mostly subconscious) about how others should behave nonverbally in particular situations and contexts, and we respond negatively when people do not conform to these norms

O

oculesics

A subcategory of kinesics, which is concerned with eye behavior as an element of communication

olfactics (olfaction)

The study of how we use and perceive odors, e.g., perfume, cooking spices, body scent, deodorant

openness

An internal posture that is receptive or open to new practices

operational competence

The capacity for individuals in an unfamiliar environment to employ verbal and nonverbal acts that are considered appropriate in specific social transactions  

organizational conflict

Disputes that can arise within an organization due to competing needs, values, beliefs, and interests

organizational identity

A sense of attachment to organizations, whether in one’s social, educational, religious, or professional life

Other-face concern

The concern or consideration for the image or ‘face’ of the other conflict party in the conflict situation

Othering

The labeling and degrading of people who are different from oneself

otherization

  See Othering

outgroup

Groups with whom one feels no emotional attachment

outgroup members

Individuals with whom one feels emotionally and psychologically detached

outsourcing

The contracting out of an internal business process to a third-party organization

P

pacifism

An approach in which individuals strive to avoid conflict situations

paralanguage (vocalics)

 The study of vocal cues, the nonphonemic qualities of language that convey meaning in verbal communication, e.g., accent, emphasis, loudness, rate of speech

particularism

The application in which individuals may be treated differently depending on their social status, interpersonal relationships, and obligations

perception

Becoming aware of, knowing, or identifying by means of the senses through a process involving selection, organization, and interpretation

perceptual understanding

An individual’s degree of open-mindedness, sophisticated cognitive processing, and resistance to stereotyping

peripheral beliefs

Beliefs related to personal perceptions and tastes

personal identity

An individual’s sense of self, which differentiates him or her from others, e.g., personal interests or hobbies, gender, age, personality

personal space

The distance most people feel comfortable standing from each other in public

personalstrength

The quality of an individual’s resilience, patience, hardiness, and persistence

personality predisposition

Interrelated personality resources

personality strength

A strong sense of self and degree of relaxation in social situations

phonetics

A branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the sounds of human speech

physical ability identity

A sense of self, which is limited to an individual’s physical capabilities and limitations

physical appearance

An individual’s outward appearance, e.g., skin color, facial features, hairstyle, dress

physical features

Body type, deformities, eye shape, gender, height, skin color, weight

platonic intercultural relationship

An affectionate, nonsexual friendship between individuals of the opposite sex who have a different cultural background

pluralistic society

A societycomposed of people from numerous cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whereby cultural diversity among citizens is acknowledged and encouraged

politeness

Demonstrating awareness and respect for another person’s public self-image/behaving in ways that are deemed socially acceptable in a particular cultural context

polychronic time orientation

A system whereby several things tend to be carried out simultaneously and there is a fluid approach is taken to scheduling time

polygamy

The practice of having more than one spouse at a time

populism

A political approach that seeks to appeal to ordinary people who believe that their concerns have been ignored by established groups in power

positive discrimination

Education, business, or employment policies that aim to redress the negative, historical impact of discrimination by taking factors such as race, sex, religion, gender, or national origin into consideration in hiring/promotion situations (See also affirmative action)

positive face

A person’s desire to gain the approval of other people

positive facework

Actions that emphasize the need for acceptance, respect, and inclusion

positivity

An optimistic outlook that enables individuals to better endure stressful events

posture

An individual’s bodily stance, e.g., slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, arm crossing

power

Authority or strength

power distance

The degree to which less powerful members of a society or organization expect and accept the unequal distribution of power among members

power imbalance

A situation in which an individual, group, or nation has great influence, control, or domination over others

power relations

An imbalance of power between individuals or groups

power status

One’s degree of power in relation to others

prejudice

Dislike or hatred of a person or group formed without reason that is often rooted in a person’s early socialization

preparedness

The degree of readiness of an individual to undertake the process of cross-cultural adaptation

primary socialization

See enculturation

process model of intercultural competence

Darla Deardorff’s (1984) model that depicts the complexity of the development of intercultural competence

professional identity

An individual’s sense of belonging in a particular profession, e.g., teaching, nursing, business

professional identity formation

The developmental process in which individuals develop a sense of what it means to be a member of a particular profession, which distinguishes them from other professional groups

proxemics

The social use of space in a communication situation

psychological adaptation

Feelings of personal well-being and self-esteem

psychological adjustment

The ability to adapt to new situations

psychological health

Mental well-being

public space

The area of space beyond which individuals perceive interactions as impersonal and relatively anonymous

Q

n/a

R

race

A social construction that historically has privileged people in positions of power

racial discrimination

The prejudicial or unequal treatment of certain individuals based on their membership, or perceived membership, in a particular racial group or category

racial identity

An identity linked to one’s biological or genetic make-up, e.g., Black, White, biracial

racial quotas

Numerical requirements for the selection and promotion of people from a group that is disadvantaged

racial segregation

The separation of people into racial groups in daily life

racialization

The process of developing racial categorization

racism

The belief in the inherent superiority of a particular race or ethnic group and the perceived inferiority of other races or ethnic groups

racist discourse

Talk that has the effect of sustaining racist practices

racist ideology

The beliefs underpinning racism

racists

Individuals who believe that people who have a different skin color (or ethnicity) are inferior; they may convey their hatred and bigotry in their nonverbal and verbal behavior (oral and written) and in extreme cases commit violent, racist acts

rapport

Mutual empathy and understanding

rapport-challenge orientation

A desire to challenge or weaken harmonious relations between interlocutors

rapport-enhancement orientation

A desire to strengthen or enhance harmonious relations between interlocutors

rapport-maintenance orientation

A desire to maintain or protect harmonious relations

rapport-neglect orientation

A lack of concern for the quality of interpersonal relations perhaps because of a focus on the self

‘rapport-talk’

Conversations in which people seek confirmation, offer support, and try to reach consensus

receiver

The person (or persons) who is receiving a message that is being sent, whether intentional or not.

receiver response

The verbal or nonverbal reaction, if any, of a receiver after decoding the message.

reductionism

The tendency to ignore variations within cultures (See also essentialism)

reentry

The process of returning home after spending time abroad

reentry (reverse) culture shock

The process of readjusting and reacculturating to one’s own home environment after living in a different cultural setting

reflective mindset

The ability to revisit and make meaning from one’s experience

refugee

An individual who flees to another country to escape danger or persecution

regional identity

The part of an individual’s identity that is rooted in his or her region of residence

register

Linguistically distinct varieties in which the language is systematically determined by the context

regulator

Action (e.g., hand gestures, head nods, touching) that influences the flow of a conversation

relational bonds

The interpersonal connection between individuals, which serves as the basis of social groups and society as a whole

relational identity

The coordination of the attitudes, actions, and identities of communication partners in a close relationship

relational interdependence

Mutual dependence or reliance on one other

relational intimacy

The closeness one feels and displays toward one’s friends

relational maintenance

Communication that aims to keep relationships operating smoothly and satisfactorily

religious conflict

See interfaith conflict

religious identity

See interfaith identity

religious identity formation

The process by which individuals decide what their relationship to religion will be

religious pluralistic society

A society where many different religious beliefs, concepts, and ideologies coexist

‘report talk’

Discourse that transmits information

resilience

An individual’s ability to cope with stress and adversity

resocialization

The process of readjusting one’s attitudes and behaviors to feel at ease in one’s home environment after a period away

respect

The display of positive regard for an individual from a different cultural background

reverse culture shock

See reentry culture shock

reverse discrimination

Perceived unfair treatment of the majority (or group that is generally considered to have more power and privilege) by providing advantages for minorities or other groups, which are deemed underprivileged

rituals

A set of actions or rites performed for symbolic meaning

role shock  (confusion)

Lack of knowledge and confusion about the norms of behavior in a new cultural setting (e.g., what actions are expected in particular situations)

romantic relationship

An intimate relationship of a romantic nature

S

same-sex (gay) marriage

A maritalunion between members of the same sex

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 

The notion that differences in the way languages encode cultural and cognitive categories determines or affects the way the users of a particular language view the world around them (See also linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity)

second language socialization

The process by which novices in an unfamiliar linguistic and cultural context enhance their intercultural communication as they gain exposure to and reflect on the linguistic conventions, sociopragmatic norms, cultural scripts, and other behaviors that are associated with the new culture (See also acculturation)

segregation

See separation

self-awareness

  Knowledge about one’s self-identities, strengths, and weaknesses

self-conflict

The internal struggle that can occur within one’s own mind

self-disclosure

The process of deliberately revealing information about oneself that would not normally be known  

self-face concern

Protective concern for one’s image when one’s face is threatened in a conflict situation

self-presentation

Information we disclose about ourselves through our discourse and nonverbal acts (e.g., dress, accent, gestures)

self-shock

See identity shock (confusion)

sender

The person who is intentionally or unintentionally sending a message (verbally or nonverbally)

separation

The acculturation strategy in which individuals strive to maintain their cultural heritage and avoid participation in the larger or dominant society in their new country

service learning (community-engaged learning)

A structured learning experience that combines community service with guided reflection

sex

The biological and physiological characteristics that define males and females

sexism

The behavior, conditions, or attitudes that promote stereotypes of social roles based on gender

sexist language

The use of words or phrases that unnecessarily emphasize gender or ignore, belittle, or stereotype members of either sex

sexual harassment

Bullying or coercion of a sexual nature

sexual identity

How one thinks of oneself in terms of who one is sexually and romantically attracted to

sexual orientation

An individual’s desires, fantasies, and attachments to sexual partners

short-term relationship

An interpersonal relationship that is very brief, e.g., lasting a few weeks or months

short-term sojourner

An individual who stays abroad for a few months or less

similarity-attraction hypothesis

The belief that we are drawn to people we perceive to be similar to us

simultaneous interpreting

The act of interpreting while the speaker is talking (e.g., at an international business conference or meeting)

skills of discovery and interaction (savoir apprendre/faire)

Theability to acquire new knowledge of a culture and to operate this knowledge in real-time communication.

skills of interpreting and relating (savoir comprendre)

Theability to interpret a document or event from another culture, to explain it and relate it to documents or events from one’s own

‘small culture’

The notion of culture is attached to small social groupings or activities wherever there is cohesive behavior rather than large groups (e.g., ethnic groups)

social categorization

The way we group people into conceptual categories in order to make sense of our increasingly complex social environment

social class

A social grouping of people based on common characteristics (e.g., economic resource, educational level) determined by society and reflecting a social hierarchy

social class prejudice

Negative personal attitudes toward individuals of another class

social distance

The degree of solidarity or closeness between people

social exclusion

The marginalization or barring of certain individuals or groups (e.g., disabled individuals, minority members) from participating in a group’s or society’s social activities

social identity

How we identify ourselves in relation to others based on what we have in common

social identity theory (SIT)

A theory developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979, 1986) that suggests that individuals tend to categorize people in their social environment intoingroups and outgroups

social inclusion

The act of giving all people in society an opportunity to participate regardless of their background or characteristics (e.g., mental or physical disability, race, language, culture, gender, age, social status, etc.)

social justice

The fair administration of laws to treat all people as equal regardless of ethnicity, religion, race, language, gender, origin, etc.

social marker

An indicator of one’s social status or position in society (e.g., accent, material possessions, level and source of education)

social media

 Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and permit the creation and exchange of content generated by users

social network

The multiple web of relationships an individual forms in a society with other people who he or she is bound to directly or indirectly through friendship or other social relationships

social networking sites (SNSs)

Web-based services that allow people to develop a public or semi-public profile and communicate with each other (e.g., Facebook, Twitter)

social penetration theory (SPT)

A theoryproposed by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor (1973) that suggests that as self-disclosure increases in depth (degree of intimacy on a particular topic), amount, and breadth (the number of topics about which one self-discloses to one’s communication partner), our relationships become more intimate

social responsibility

The perceived level of interdependence and social concern for others, the society, and the environment

social sanctions

The measures used by a society to enforce its rules or norms of acceptable behavior

social space

The formal distance between individuals in a social setting or, more broadly, cultural space (e.g., the global community)

social status

The honor or prestige attached to one’s position or standing in society

socialization

The process by which individuals learn to internalize and follow the conventions of behavior imposed by a society or social group (See also enculturation)

sociocultural adaptation

Competence in dealing with social and cultural dimensions in one’s environment

socio-emotional support

The psychological assistance provided by friendship circles, intracultural and intercultural relationships, and family members

sociolinguistic competence

The ability to communicate verbally and nonverbally in ways that are deemed appropriate in a particular sociocultural setting

sociopragmatic awareness

The awareness of how and why language is used in certain ways in social situations in a particular cultural context

sociopragmatic competence

The ability to use language appropriately in specific social situations in a particular cultural context

sociopragmatic expectancy violation

  The use of language or nonverbal actions that are perceived to be inappropriate in relation to one’s status or role identity in a particular social and cultural context

sociopragmatic norms

Rules governing the appropriate use of discourse in specific social situations in a particular cultural context

sojourn

A period of time spent living in a cultural setting different from one’s home environment

sojourner

An individual who is temporarily in a new environment for a specific purpose (e.g., study, work, business) and typically for a certain length of time (e.g., several days, months, years)

speech act

The minimal unit of analysis of conversational interaction

speech community

A group of individuals who use the same variety of a language and share specific rules for speaking and for interpreting speech

speech illustrators

Gestures or movements that illustrate or emphasize a verbal message, even though the user may not be conscious of their use

speech style

The way we talk, such as our use of vocabulary, syntactic patterns, volume, pace, pitch, register, and intonation

speech style preference

The speech we are most comfortable using in interactions

stereotype

A preconceived idea that attributes certain characteristics (e.g., personality traits, level of intelligence), intentions, and behaviors to all the members of a particular social class or group of people

stereotyping

A strong tendency to characterize people from other cultural backgrounds unfairly, collectively, and usually negatively

stress-adaptation-growth dynamic

Young Yun Kim’s (2001) notion that acculturative stress (e.g., language and culture shock) can prompt intercultural learning and gradually lead to adaptation in border crossers

study abroad

A subtype of education abroad that leads to progress toward an academic degree at a student’s home institution; typically, this includes such activities as classroom study, research, internships, and/or service learning.

style shifting

The process of adjusting or changing from one style of speech to another within the same language

subculture

See co-culture

subtractive bilingualism

A process wherebya second language is added at the expense of the first language and culture (Also see additive bilingualism)

superstition

 A belief, half-belief, or practice that is not based on scientific evidence

Surface-level diversity

Differences that are easily recognized through a quick assessment of physical characteristics, e.g., gender, age, race, ethnicity, etc.

symbol

An artifact, word(s), gesture, sign, or nonverbal behavior that stands for something meaningful to individuals in a particular context

synchronous communication

Direct communication whereby all parties involved in the communication are present and interacting at the same time (e.g., Skype, online chat rooms, Internet relay chat)

systemic racism

The mistreatment of people of a particular race, religious, or ethnic group on a wide scale

T

telecommunication

 Communication at a distance via technological means, e.g., through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves

third-culture building

The blending of different cultural identities and practices to form an identity that is unique to the parties involved, i.e., the identity of a multicultural family

third-culture individuals (TCIs)

Individuals who have spent a significant part of their developmental years outside their parents’ home country

third-culture kids (TCKs)

See third-culture individuals (TCIs)

third gender

People who are categorized as neither male nor female, either by themselves or by social consensus

time perception

Views about such aspects as punctuality, willingness to wait, and number of tasks to carry out at the same time

tolerance

Going along with behaviors that one does not necessarily respect or accept

tolerance of ambiguity

One’s ability to cope with situations that are not clear

tourism

The movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal, recreational or business/professional purposes

tourist

Visitors who usually stay abroad for only a short time (e.g., a few days to several weeks or months) to sight-see, enjoy themselves, and get a taste of a different linguistic and cultural environment

traditions

The transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation

transactive  communication

People are consciously directing their messages to someone else

transformation

The act or process of change

transformational learning theory

A theorydeveloped by Jack Mezirow (1994, 2000) that posits that adults who engage in critical reflection and self-examination may experience significant personal growth

transgender

People whose gender identities are different from the expectations and social norms associated with their biological sex

transition shock (confusion)

The state of loss, disorientation, and identity confusion that can occur when one enters a new situation, job, relationship, or physical location, e.g., the strain of adjusting to the unfamiliar 

translation

The act or process of translating from one written language to another

transnational competence

See global competence

transnational identity

See global identity

turn-taking

The use of nonverbal or verbal means to start and finish a turn in a conversation

U

U-curve adjustment model

A theory of cultural adaption that suggests that border crossers go through several phases as they adjust to a new cultural environment

uncertainty avoidance

Feeling threatened by ambiguous situations, individuals take  steps to avoid uncertainty and return to the familiar

uncertainty reduction theory (URT)

A theory developed by Berger and Calabrese (1975) that posits that the greater our ability to predict and explain our communication partners’ behavior, the greater the chance that our relationships will become more intimate

‘unconscious’ culture

Elements that are invisible, nonverbal, and unconsciously learned over time

unintentional communication

Messages that are unintentionally communicated to a receiver

universal

Of, relating to, extending to, or affecting the entire world or all within the world; a worldwide phenomenon

universalism

The application of the same rules for everyone regardless of their status or relationship

V

valence

The positive or negative nature of something (e.g., values)

value

Shared ideas about what is right or wrong

value orientations frameworks

Models that identify, describe, and contrast the dominant value system in various cultures

vertical-based facework

Formal asymmetrical strategies/deferential treatment

virtual (cyber) identity

See internet identity

vocalics

See paralanguage

voluntary migrant

An individual who willingly chooses to settle abroad

W

W-curve adjustment model

An extended version of the U-curve model of adjustment that suggests that sojourners go through predictable phases when adapting to a new cultural situation and returning home

way of being

A characteristic or frequent manner of acting or thinking

Web 2.0

Novel ways of creating, collaborating, editing, and sharing user-generated content online

‘whole person’ development

The nurturing of emotional intelligence and resourcefulness, interpersonal communication skills, intercultural competence, independence, and maturity

willingness to communicate (WTC)

 An individual’s  readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons

work ethic

 A set of values based on hard work and discipline

workplace discrimination

Unfair practices in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation

world citizen

See global identity

World Englishes

Varieties of English in the world

worldview

Our overall way of looking at the world, which serves as a filter to help us make sense of humanity

X

xenophobia

An irrational fear of foreigners or strangers

Y

n/a

Z

n/a