Historical timeline

Destruction of Troy.

1152

Traditional date of founding of Alba Longa.

1000–750

Phoenician expansion overseas.

1000

Latins settle in Latium.

814

Traditional date of founding of Carthage.

775

Euboean Greeks establish trading post in Bay of Naples.

753

Traditional date of founding of Rome.

753–510

Period of the kings in Rome.

650

Etruscans occupy Latium.

616–578

Tarquinius Priscus.

578–534

Servius Tullius.

534–510

Tarquinius Superbus.

524

Defeat of Etruscans at Cumae.

510

Ejection of kings.

505

Final defeat of Etruscans.

509

Establishment of the republic. First consuls. Dedication of Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.

496

Romans defeat Latins at Lake Regillus.

494

Traditional date for the institution of the office of tribune of the people.

451/450

The Twelve Tables.

443

First censors.

439

The murder of Spurius Maelius.

409

First plebeian quaestor.

390

Gauls sack Rome, but withdraw in return for ransom.

367

First plebeian consul elected. Creation of praetorship.

356

First plebeian dictator.

351

First plebeian censor.

340

War against Latins.

338

Latin league of states dissolved. Campania becomes Roman.

327–290

Samnite wars.

321

Disaster at Caudine Forks.

312

Appius Claudius Caecus constructs the Via Appia and the Aqua Appia.

310

Roman inroads into Etruria.

308

Surrender of Umbria.

283

Final capitulation of Etruscans.

280–275

Pyrrhus leads Greek cities in south of Italy against Rome.

272

Surrender of Tarentum and other Greek cities in south.

265

Rome now holds all Italy south of the Arno.

264

First show in Rome with gladiators.

264–241

First Punic War.

260

Gaius Duilius wins Rome’s first naval victory at Mylae.

241

Western Sicily becomes first Roman province.

239–237

Rome annexes Corsica and Sardinia.

237

Hamilcar overruns southern Spain.

227

All Sicily and Sardinia with Corsica become provinces.

221

Hannibal assumes command of Carthaginian forces.

219

Hannibal captures Saguntum.

218–202

Second Punic War.

218

Hannibal invades Italy

217

Hannibal defeats Romans at Lake Trasimene.

216

Hannibal defeats Romans at Cannae.

211–206

Scipio’s campaigns in Spain.

202

P. Cornelius Scipio (soon to be Africanus) wins the Battle of Zama.

197

Spain annexed and divided into two provinces.

191

Rome completes conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

184

Cato elected censor, having been consul in 195.

167

End of third war against Macedonia, which is divided into four self-governing regions.

167–160

Maccabaean revolt in Judaea.

153

Roman year begins on 1 January.

149–146

Third Punic War.

146

Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Province of Africa established.

144

Dedication of temples to Hercules Victor by Lucius Mummius Achaicus

133

Tiberius Gracchus is tribune of the people. Pergamum bequeathed to Rome and in 129 becomes the province of Asia.

123–122

Gaius Gracchus is tribune of the people.

121

Transalpine Gaul becomes a province.

112–106

Wars against Jugurtha.

107

First consulship of Marius.

105

Cimbri destroy two Roman armies in Gaul.

102–101

Marius defeats Teutones and Cimbri.

100

Sixth consulship of Marius.

91–88

Social War between Rome and Italian allies, who are effectively tired of fighting for Rome without being treated as Roman citizens. The allies lose the war but make their point.

88

First consulship of Sulla, who is assigned the command against Mithridates VI, king of Pontus. Motion by P. Sulpicius Rufus, tribune of the people, to appoint Marius in Sulla’s place. Sulla marches on Rome, his consular colleague is killed, and Marius is outlawed. Mithridates massacres Roman citizens in Asia. Sulla departs for the East with his army.

87

The consul Cornelius Cinna is deposed and driven out of Rome by his consular colleague, Gnaeus Octavius. Marius and Cinna capture Rome and massacre all opposition. They are elected consuls for 86.

86

Seventh consulship of Marius (who dies 13 January) and second of Cinna.

85

Third consulship of Cinna and first of Papirius Carbo. Sulla agrees peace terms with Mithridates.

84

Fourth consulship of Cinna and second of Carbo. Cinna is murdered by his soldiers while crossing to Asia to confront Sulla.

83

Sulla lands in Italy, and is joined by Crassus and Pompey.

82

Consuls are Gaius Marius Junior and Carbo. Sulla defeats opposition forces. Marius commits suicide. Sulla proclaimed dictator. Proscriptions. Constitutional reforms.

80

Sulla resigns as dictator and goes into retirement.

78

Death of Sulla. The beginning of the end of the republic.

74

Bithynia and Cyrenaica become provinces.

73–71

Slave revolt of Spartacus.

70

First consulship of Pompey and Crassus. Trial of Verres by Cicero.

67

Pompey crushes the pirates.

66–63

Pompey, given exceptional powers in the East, defeats Mithridates and reorganizes the region. End of the Seleucid empire. Syria, including Judaea until 40 BC, is made a province.

63

Consulship of Cicero. Conspiracy of Catiline. Caesar is elected pontifex maximus. Birth of Caesar’s great-nephew, the future Augustus.

60

First triumvirate of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey.

59

First consulship of Caesar, who is appointed governor of Cisalpine Gaul with Illyricum for five years, to which the Senate adds Gallia Narbonensis (Transalpine Gaul). Pompey’s actions in the East ratified. Clodius becomes a pleb and is elected tribune of the people.

58–50

Caesar’s Gallic Wars. The whole of Gaul becomes part of the empire.

56

Renewal at Lucca of first triumvirate.

55

Second consulship of Crassus and Pompey. Caesar’s term extended.

55–54

Caesar’s invasions of Britain.

53

Death of Crassus in Parthia.

52

Pompey appointed sole consul.

49

Pompey authorized to deal with Caesar, who crosses the Rubicon with his army, signifying that he comes as an invader. Pompey leaves for Greece. Caesar is dictator for eleven days, then resigns.

48

Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey takes flight to Egypt, where he is murdered as he steps ashore. Caesar, in pursuit, stays to sort out Cleopatra’s affairs. He is reappointed dictator. Local war in Alexandria.

48–47

Caesar in Egypt.

47

Alexandrian War concluded with Jewish help. Caesar defeats Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, at Zela. (‘Veni, vidi, vici.’) Reaches Rome in September.

46

Caesar is appointed dictator for ten years. He crosses to Africa from Sicily, and crushes Pompey’s supporters at Thapsus. Suicide of Cato. Caesar’s quadruple triumph. Cleopatra in Rome with her twelve-year-old husband (her brother Ptolemy XIV) and her one-year-old son Ptolemy Caesar (popularly called Caesarion). Caesar’s wide-ranging legislation includes the reform of the calendar, necessitating the year having fifteen months. He leaves for Spain.

45

Final defeat of Pompeians in Spain. Caesar returns to Rome in October.

44

Caesar designated perpetual dictator. He is assassinated 15 March, having announced that he will leave Rome on 18 March to lead his armies against the Parthians. Marc Antony, Caesar’s consular colleague, takes control. The Senate, at the instigation of Cicero, grants amnesties to the conspirators, and recognizes Octavian as Caesar’s heir. Octavian holds games in honour of Caesar’s birthday. Antony, having granted himself the governorship of Cisalpine Gaul for five years, besieges the sitting governor, Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, in Mutina.

43

First consulship of Octavian. Formation of second triumvirate: Octavian, Antony and Lepidus. Proscriptions, in which Cicero dies.

42

Caesar is officially deified. The chief conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, are defeated at Philippi. Cisalpine Gaul incorporated into Italy. Antony goes to settle imperial affairs in the East.

40

Octavian defeats at Perusia army led by Lucius Antonius, consul for 41 and Antony’s brother. ‘Treaty of Brundisium’ effectively divides the Roman world between Octavian and Antony, who marries Octavia, Octavian’s sister.

40–35

Trouble with Sextus Pompeius, who finally surrenders in Asia and is executed.

38

Octavian, having divorced his wife the previous year after she had given birth to his daughter Julia, marries Livia, mother of Tiberius and pregnant with Drusus.

37

Renewal of triumvirate.

33

Second consulship of Octavian. Legal end of triumvirate. Octavian steps up propaganda campaign against Antony.

32

Antony divorces Octavia, and is attacked in the Senate by Octavian. War declared against Cleopatra.

31

Battle of Actium on 2 September.

31–23

Successive consulships of Octavian/Augustus.

30

Having been called back to Italy by mutinies and general unrest, Octavian returns to the East, arriving in Egypt during the summer. Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide. Egypt is annexed by Rome and becomes the personal property of the emperor.

29

Octavian celebrates triple triumph for victories in Dalmatia, at Actium and in Egypt. Temple of the Divine Julius dedicated.

28

Octavian awarded the title of princeps. Octavian and his consular colleague Agrippa hold a census, the first since 70 BC. They also reduce the number of senators from 1,000 to 800.

27

Octavian renounces his special powers and ‘transfers the state to the Roman people’. He accepts the provinces of Spain, Gaul and Syria for ten years, and assumes the name Augustus. Agrippa builds the first Pantheon, which is completed in 25.

23

Augustus resigns his eleventh consulship, probably because of illness. He is awarded full tribunician powers for life, and extended imperium which gives him authority over any provincial governor and over the army (renewed for five years in 18 and 13 BC, and for ten years in 8 BC, and in AD 3 and 13).

22

Famine and plague. Augustus declines a dictatorship and censorship for life, but accepts the post of corn supremo. He leaves for the East for three years.

21

Agrippa is forced to divorce his wife and marry Augustus’ daughter Julia, whose husband Marcellus has died after being married to her for two years.

18

The Senate is reduced to 600. Agrippa is granted special powers.

17

Augustus adopts Agrippa’s and Julia’s two sons, Gaius and Lucius, as his own sons. Saecular Games celebrated.

15

Tiberius and Drusus, Augustus’ stepsons, defeat the Raeti and Vindelici, whose territory becomes a Roman province.

13

Tiberius’ first consulship. Augustus returns to Rome after three years in Gaul, and Agrippa after three years in the East. Agrippa’s special powers extended for five years.

12

Following the death of Lepidus, Augustus is elected pontifex maximus. Death of Agrippa.

11

Tiberius is forced to divorce his wife and marry Julia.

9

Dedication of Ara Pacis in Rome.

8

Tiberius scores victories in Germany.

7

Tiberius awarded tribunician powers for five years; he retires to Rhodes.

6

Death of Drusus. Death of Herod the Great.

2

Banishment of Julia.

2

Death of Lucius. Tiberius returns to Rome.

4

Death of Gaius. Augustus adopts Tiberius, who is granted tribunician powers for ten years. Tiberius adopts Germanicus, son of Drusus, and departs for Germany. Law restricting manumission.

6

Augustus establishes aerarium militare to provide for retired soldiers, and creates the post of praefectus vigilum.

9

Varian disaster.

13

Augustus’ control of his provinces renewed for a further ten years. Tiberius’ powers are also renewed, with imperium equal to that of Augustus.

14

Census enumerates five million Roman citizens. Death (19 August) and deification (17 September) of Augustus. Tiberius succeeds him. Mutinies in Pannonia and Germany. Sejanus appointed commander of imperial guard. Death of Julia.

16

Germanicus advances to the river Elbe, but is recalled to Rome and the attempt to extend the Roman frontier is abandoned.

17

Germanicus celebrates a triumph, then is sent to the East with powers to reorganize the provinces.

18

Third consulship of Tiberius, with Germanicus, who falls out with Gnaeus Piso, legate of Syria. Death, in banishment, of the poet Ovid.

19

Death of Germanicus in Syria, which Piso is forced by army pressure to leave.

20

Piso, charged with treason and with procuring the death of Germanicus, commits suicide.

21

Fourth consulship of Tiberius, with his son Drusus. Tiberius, however, retires for a time to Campania.

22

Drusus awarded tribunician powers.

23

Sejanus relocates the imperial guard to a camp immediately outside the city walls. Death of Drusus (attributed to Sejanus by Tacitus).

26

Pontius Pilate becomes administrator of Judaea. Sejanus persuades Tiberius to leave Rome.

27

Tiberius settles in Capri.

28

Marriage of Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina (elder), to Domitius Ahenobarbus.

29

Agrippina (elder) and her eldest son exiled. Death of Livia at the age of eighty-six.

31

From Capri, Tiberius denounces Sejanus, on whom the Senate pronounces the death sentence.

33

Probable date of the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth under Roman law. Drusus, son of Germanicus, becomes one of over sixty well-known people executed for treason during the rule of Tiberius.

37

Death of Tiberius (16 March). Gaius (Caligula), Tiberius’ great-nephew, becomes emperor and is suffect consul with his uncle Claudius. Death of Tiberius Gemellus, Tiberius’ grandson. Birth of the emperor Nero.

38

Death and deification of Caligula’s sister Drusilla. Riots in Alexandria between Jews and Greeks.

39

Conspiracy of Aemilius Lepidus, widower of Drusilla, and C. Lentulus Gaetulicus, consul in 26 and now legate in Upper Germany, both of whom are executed. Caligula’s other two sisters are exiled. Caligula is on the Rhine and in Gaul over the winter.

40

Caligula makes an expedition to the Channel. On his return to Rome, he orders a statue of himself to be set up in the Temple at Jerusalem. Deputation of Alexandrine Jews and Greeks.

41

Assassination of Caligula. Claudius, with the help of Herod Agrippa in bringing round the Senate, is made emperor, having promised a donative to each member of the imperial guard equivalent to ten years’ pay, an unfortunate precedent. Herod Agrippa (Agrippa I), in addition to his existing territories, is also made king of Judaea, Samaria and Idumaea, which cease to be under the jurisdiction of the governor of Syria.

42

Mauretania is divided into two provinces.

43

Invasion of Britain, part of which becomes a province under Aulus Plautius.

44

Claudius celebrates a triumph for his victory in Britain and names his three-year-old son Britannicus. Achaea and Macedonia become subject to the authority of the Senate. Death of Agrippa I. Judaea reverts to being a province.

46

Achaea is annexed.

47

Plautius celebrates a triumph for his successes in Britain, the last occasion on which a subject is so honoured.

48

As censor, a post he revives, Claudius registers some seven million citizens of Rome, and opens the way for more provincials to become senators. Death of the empress Messalina. Claudius marries Agrippina (the younger), the daughter of his brother Germanicus.

50

Claudius adopts Nero, son of Agrippina.

51

Final defeat in Wales of the British chief Caratacus, who is handed over by Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes. Claudius pardons him and his family and allows them to live out their lives in Rome. Vespasian is suffect consul.

53

Marriage of Nero to Claudius’ daughter Octavia.

54

Death of Claudius by poison (12 October). Accession of Nero. Claudius is deified.

55

Nero rules initially with the advice of his tutor, Seneca, and Burrus, commander of the imperial guard. Claudius’ freedman, who was his financial secretary, is dismissed. Britannicus is poisoned. Gn. Domitius Corbulo appointed to military command in the East.

56

Quaestors are replaced by two imperial officers (ex-praetors) at the treasury, to which Nero transfers forty million sesterces in 57.

59

Nero finally succeeds in murdering his mother.

60

Corbulo, after several military successes, settles the Armenian problem, and is appointed governor of Syria.

61

In Britain, the Iceni (under Boudica) and Trinovantes revolt, causing great destruction and slaughter. They are finally defeated by Suetonius Paullinus, and Boudica commits suicide.

62

Death of Burrus. Seneca withdraws from public life. Nero marries Poppaea, having divorced and subsequently murdered Octavia.

64

Great fire of Rome.

65

In the wake of a high-level conspiracy, there are many executions and enforced suicides, including that of Seneca. Death of Poppaea.

66–74

First Jewish War.

66

As First Jewish War begins, Vespasian is appointed military commander in Judaea. Nero marries Statilia Messalina.

68

Nero returns from visits to Greece. Verginius Rufus, legate of Upper Germany, crushes rebellion of Vindex in Gaul. Death of Nero (6 June). End of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Galba enters Rome and is accepted as emperor.

69

Year of the four emperors. Vitellius, governor of Lower Germany, is acclaimed emperor by his troops and those in Upper Germany. Galba and Piso, his nominee as successor, is killed by the imperial guard, who make Otho emperor (15 January). In northern Italy Vitellius defeats Otho, who commits suicide (14 April). Vitellius arrives in Rome (mid-July). Vespasian, in Judaea, is proclaimed emperor by Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt (1 July), and is accepted as such by the troops in the East and on the Danube. The Danube legions capture Rome (21 December). Death of Vitellius (24 December).

70

Vespasian and Titus are consuls. Titus takes Jerusalem; destruction of the Temple. Vespasian reaches Rome (October).

71

Vespasian and Nerva are consuls. Triumph of Vespasian and Titus for victories in Judaea. Titus is appointed commander of the imperial guard and receives tribunician powers.

73

First consulship of Domitian.

74

Vespasian confers Latin rights on all parts of the Spanish peninsula. Fall of Masada marks end of First Jewish War.

78–84

Agricola is governor of Britain.

79

Death of Vespasian and accession of Titus (23 June). Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii (August).

80

Fire in Rome destroys Capitoline Temple. Opening of the Colosseum (the Flavian Amphitheatre).

81

Erection of Arch of Titus. Death of Titus and accession of Domitian (13 September).

83

Domitian campaigns in Germany.

84

Battle of Mons Graupius in Scotland. Agricola is recalled.

86–92

Domitian’s Danube wars.

96

Assassination of Domitian. Senate elects Nerva to succeed him.

96

Accession of Nerva, who takes an oath that he will not execute any senator.

97

Nerva adopts Trajan as co-ruler and successor.

98

Death of Nerva. He is succeeded by Trajan, who is campaigning on the Rhine.

99

Trajan arrives in Rome, having made preparations along the Danube frontier for a forthcoming campaign.

100

Hadrian, first-cousin once removed of Trajan, who is also Hadrian’s guardian, marries Vibia Sabina, Trajan’s great-niece.

101

Trajan invades Dacia, which is finally annexed in 106.

102

Decebalus, Dacian king, capitulates and becomes a client king of Rome.

104

Death of the poet Martial. New war against Decebalus.

105

Arabia annexed.

106

Death of Decebalus and annexation of Dacia.

107

Trajan’s 123-day triumph.

111

Correspondence between Pliny, governor of Bithynia, and Trajan about the Christians.

112

Dedication of Trajan’s Forum, incorporating Trajan’s Market.

113

Dedication of Trajan’s Column. Trajan prepares for Parthian campaign.

114–116

Trajan conquers Mesopotamia, capturing Babylon and Ctesiphon, capital of the Parthian empire.

116

Jewish risings are brutally put down, with the virtual destruction of the Jewish communities in North Africa, Alexandria and Cyprus.

c. 117

Death of the historian Tacitus.

117

Trajan dies in Cilicia on his way home, having left Hadrian in charge of the armies in the East. Trajan’s widow, Pompeia Plotina, announces that he had adopted Hadrian, who is hailed emperor by the army in Syria. Roman empire at its greatest extent.

118

Four former consuls and senior commanders, all Trajan’s men, are executed on the orders of the Senate. Hadrian reaches Rome.

121

Hadrian in Gaul, Upper Germany, Raetia and Noricum.

122

Hadrian in Lower Germany, Britain (where he begins construction of Hadrian’s Wall), Gaul and Spain. Suetonius is dismissed from his post as director of the imperial correspondence for some disrespectful behaviour relating to the empress Sabina.

123

Hadrian in North Africa, Crete, Syria and Asia Minor.

124

Hadrian in western Europe and Greece.

125

Hadrian in Greece and Sicily, before returning to Rome.

c. 126

Rebuilding of Pantheon in its present form.

128

Hadrian in Africa, Athens and Sparta.

129

Hadrian tours eastern provinces.

130

Hadrian in Judaea, where he proposes the foundation of Aelia Capitolina on the site of the old Jerusalem and the building of a temple to Jupiter where the Temple had stood. Then in Egypt, where Antinous drowns in the Nile; Hadrian founds Antinoopolis in his memory.

132–135

Second Jewish War, at the end of which Jerusalem is razed and Judaea is renamed Syria Palaestina, or ‘Palestine’.

126

Death of Sabina. Hadrian adopts Ceionius Commodus as his successor.

138

Death of Commodus. Hadrian adopts Antoninus, consul in 120 and more recently governor of Asia, whom he causes to adopt Lucius Verus, son of Commodus, and Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus’ nephew. Death of Hadrian (10 July). Accession of Antoninus.

139

Antoninus persuades the Senate to confirm Hadrian’s deification, for which act he is granted the surname Pius.

c. 140

Death of the poet Juvenal.

141

Death of Antoninus’ wife, the empress Faustina. She is deified by the Senate; Antoninus establishes in her honour an alimentary programme for the care of orphaned girls (the Puellae Faustinianae).

142–143

Building of the Antonine Wall in northern Britain between the Clyde and Forth estuaries.

145

Marcus Aurelius marries Faustina, daughter of Antoninus.

147

Marcus Aurelius receives imperial powers.

161

Death and deification of Antoninus in his seventy-fifth year, having named as his successor Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius accedes as emperor but insists that Verus rules with him.

161–166

Parthian Wars, successfully conducted by Verus with the help of his generals.

164

Verus marries Lucilla, fourteen-year-old daughter of Marcus Aurelius.

c. 165

Antonine Wall is dismantled.

166

Verus’ army brings back with it the most virulent plague (probably smallpox) experienced in the empire.

167

Rising of Marcomanni. Barbarian invasions of Danube provinces. Famine and plague.

169

Marcomanni and Quadi invade Italy and besiege Aquileia. The two emperors oppose them with an army into which slaves have been enlisted. Death and deification of Verus. Marcus Aurelius returns to Rome with the body, then goes back to the northern frontier, where he spends most of his remaining years.

c. 174–c. 180

Marcus Aurelius composes his Meditations.

176

From Syria, Marcus Aurelius travels to Alexandria and Athens, where he endows chairs of philosophy. Back in Rome, he celebrates a triumph and makes his fifteen-year-old son Commodus joint ruler.

177

Pogrom of the Christian community in Lugdunum (Lyon).

178

Further rising of Marcomanni and other tribes.

180

Death of Marcus Aurelius at the age of fifty-nine. Accession of Commodus, who, having made peace with the northern tribes, enters Rome and holds a triumph.

182

Conspiracy in which the emperor’s sister Lucilla is involved; she is exiled and then executed. Tigidius Perennis becomes commander of the imperial guard, in which capacity he effectively runs the state.

184

Commodus acclaimed as imperator and takes the title Britannicus for victories by Ulpius Marcellus in northern Britain.

190

Death of Cleander, whom the people hold responsible for the famine. Commodus renames the months of the year to correspond with his own names and titles.

192

Pertinax, consul for that year, is appointed prefect (chief administrator) of Rome. Commodus is murdered (31 December), bringing to an end the Antonine dynasty. Pertinax is acclaimed emperor by the Senate.

193

Pertinax is assassinated by the imperial guard (28 March), who acclaim Didius Julianus as emperor. In April, Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia Superior, is proclaimed emperor by his legions at Carnuntum. Pescennius Niger, governor of Syria, is also proclaimed emperor by his troops. Severus marches on Rome, gaining the support of Clodius by appointing him Caesar (deputy emperor). As Severus approaches Rome (1 June), he is recognized as emperor by the Senate. Didius is murdered (2 June). Severus enters Rome (9 June) and disbands the imperial guard, which he replaces with three of his own legions. Pescennius is defeated and his base of Byzantium is besieged.

194

Severus defeats Pescennius, campaigns in Mesopotamia, and launches attacks on eastern tribes.

195

For his victories in Mesopotamia, Severus dubs himself Parthicus Arabicus and Parthicus Adiabenicus. He also proclaims himself the son of Marcus Aurelius and renames his elder son Marcus Aurelius Antonius (later nicknamed ‘Caracalla’) and makes him Caesar. His wife Julia Domna receives the title Mater Castrorum (‘Mother of the Camp’). Clodius, put in an impossible position, crosses into Gaul with his army, who proclaim him emperor.

197

Severus defeats Clodius Albinus and departs for a second Parthian war.

198

Severus captures Ctesiphon, Babylonia’s chief city. He names himself Parthicus Maximus, promotes Caracalla to Augustus and his younger brother Geta to Caesar. Mesopotamia, annexed by Trajan, abandoned by Hadrian, becomes a province again.

202

Severus holds lavish celebratory games but refuses a triumph. Marriage of Caracalla to Fulvia Plautilla, daughter of G. Fulvius Plautianus, commander of the imperial guard, who had held the fort while Severus was away. Severus and his family leave for a triumphal tour of his native Africa.

203

Erection of Arch of Severus in the Forum.

205

Plautianus and others are executed for alleged conspiracy. Caracalla divorces Plautilla. The lawyer Papinian replaces Plautianus, heralding an Augustan age of Roman law.

208

The imperial family leaves for Britain.

209

Geta is promoted to Augustus, but is left behind while Severus and Caracalla campaign in Scotland.

211

Severus dies at York. His family returns to Rome, where Caracalla and Geta are to be joint emperors.

212

Caracalla has Geta murdered in his mother’s arms, and instigates wholesale slaughter of sympathizers and innocent citizens. All free inhabitants of the empire are now entitled to be Roman citizens.

213

Caracalla defeats the Alamanni, then campaigns on the Danube frontier and in Asia Minor.

215

Caracalla visits Alexandria, where there are riots; the governor of Egypt is executed along with thousands of young men. He institutes the antoninianus (worth two denarii but weighing less), which contributes to inflation.

217

Caracalla, campaigning in the East, is killed near Carrhae by members of his entourage on the instructions of Macrinus, commander of the imperial guard. Macrinus’ troops proclaim him emperor. Death of Julia Domna.

218

Macrinus buys peace with Parthia. Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, promulgates a story that her fifteen-year-old grandson Bassianus, priest of the cult of Elagabalus at Emesa, is Caracalla’s son. He is proclaimed emperor by the troops in Syria. Macrinus is defeated and subsequently executed.

218–228

The historian Cassius Dio is successively administrator of Pergamum and then Smyrna, governor of Africa, and military commander of Dalmatia and then Upper Pannonia.

219

Bassianus reaches Rome and takes office as Elagabalus.

221

Elagabalus adopts his fifteen-year-old cousin Severus Alexander, son of Julia Maesa’s daughter, Julia Mammaea.

222

Elagabalus is murdered by soldiers and succeeded by Severus Alexander, who rules with the help and under the influence of his mother.

226

The Aqua Alexandrina, the last of Rome’s eleven significant aqueducts, is operative.

227

The Sasanid dynasty, having succeeded the Parthians, threatens to overrun all the former Persian territories in the East.

229

Cassius Dio is consul, with Severus Alexander, after which he retires to Bithynia, land of his birth.

231–233

Severus Alexander’s eastern campaign restores the status quo in the region.

234

Trouble on the Rhine. Severus Alexander and his mother go to Mainz to oversee a response to further threats from the Alamanni.

235

Assassination of Severus Alexander and his mother. A senior officer, Maximinus Thrax, becomes emperor on the spot.

236

Maximinus campaigns successfully across the Rhine and Danube.

238

Year of six emperors. The Senate declares as emperor Gordian I, governor of Africa, who includes his son Gordian II in the invitation. Both die after their forces are attacked by the army commander of Numidia, who supports Maximinus. The Senate deifies them and selects two replacements, Pupienus and Balbinus. Maximinus invades Italy but is murdered by his troops. The imperial guard kills Pupienus and Balbinus and proclaims as emperor Gordian III, the thirteen-year-old nephew of Gordian II.

242–243

Roman victories over Goths and Persians.

244

Gordian is murdered in Mesopotamia. Philippus ‘the Arabian’, commander of the imperial guard, becomes emperor and makes peace with the Persians.

248

Decius, commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his troops. Celebrations for the thousandth anniversary of Rome’s foundation.

249

Decius defeats and kills Philippus near Verona.

250

Widespread persecution of Christians by Decius. Plague rages for fifteen years.

251

Invasion of Goths. Decius is killed trying to prevent them returning home. Trebonianus Gallus, governor of Moesia, declared emperor by the troops.

253

Aemilius Aemilianus, commander in Moesia, declared emperor by his troops, as is the elderly Licinius Valerianus (Valerian), who is in Moesia gathering troops to oppose him. Aemilianus defeats and kills Trebonianus, but is himself killed by his troops. Valerian reaches Rome and is recognized as emperor jointly with his son Gallienus.

255

Further invasions of Goths, as well as Scythians and Alamanni. Persians reach Antioch.

257

Edict of Valerian against the Christians. The Alamanni are checked by Gallienus, and the Goths by his army commander Aurelian. Valerian goes to the East.

258

Postumus makes himself ruler of Gaul.

259–274

Imperium Galliarum, breakaway state of Gaul, established by Postumus.

259

Gallienus defeats the Alamanni at Milan and in Gaul. Valerian captured by the Persians.

260

First Edict of Toleration for Christians.

260–261

Some nine usurpers to the title of emperor come and go in various parts of the empire.

268

Postumus and three successors murdered by local troops; the senate of Gaul appoints Tetricus ruler. Gallienus, having successfully campaigned against the Goths, is murdered by his own officers in northern Italy. Claudius emerges as emperor.

270

Death of Claudius by plague. Aurelian, now commander-in-chief of all Roman cavalry, is proclaimed emperor by his troops in Sirmium while campaigning against the Goths, though Claudius’ brother Quintillus has been chosen in Rome for the office. Aurelian defeats Quintillus and is confirmed as emperor by the Senate after Quintillus dies in mysterious circumstances. Zenobia, regent of Palmyra for her young son, occupies Egypt and much of Asia Minor.

270–273

Revolt of Zenobia.

271

Aurelian defeats Vandals and Alamanni, then begins fortifications: Aurelian Wall in Rome; defences for other cities.

272

Aurelian abandons Dacia north of the Danube and creates a new province south of the river, with its capital at Serdica (Sophia). In the East he defeats Zenobia and captures Palmyra.

273

In the West Aurelian defeats the Carpi, and in the East he puts down a revolt in Palmyra, which he destroys.

274

Aurelian defeats Tetricus, bringing Britain and Gaul back into the empire. He celebrates his second triumph and makes Sol Invictus the supreme god of the Roman empire.

275

Assassination of Aurelian while on his way to fight the Persians. The army asks the Senate to choose an emperor; after a delay, its members elect Tacitus, an elderly senator.

276

Tacitus is killed by his own troops in Cappadocia. Florianus, commander of the imperial guard, is chosen emperor in Rome, while Probus is proclaimed in the East. They meet in battle at Tarsus, where Florianus is killed by his own men. Probus is now sole emperor.

277–280

Probus campaigns successfully on the Rhine and the Danube and then moves to the East, where he restores order in Egypt and undertakes civil engineering work along the Nile.

280–281

Revolts of Proculus and Bonosus in the West, and of Saturninus in the East.

281

Probus celebrates a triumph and completes the Aurelian Wall.

282

Probus leaves Rome to embark on an invasion of Persia. Carus, commander of the imperial guard, is proclaimed emperor. Troops sent by Probus defect to Carus, and Probus is killed by those who are still with him.

283

Carus subdues the Quadi and Sarmatians but dies en route to fight the Persians.

284

The empire is shared between Carus’ sons, Carinus and Numerianus. On the death of Numerianus in mysterious circumstances, Diocles, commander of the cavalry of the imperial guard and suffect consul in 283, is proclaimed emperor in his place, and changes his name to Diocletian.

285

Carinus is killed in battle. Diocletian appoints his Dalmatian colleague Maximian Caesar, with responsibility for the western empire.

286

Maximian is promoted to Augustus, with responsibility for the West. Carausius declares himself ruler of Britain and part of northern Gaul.

287–290

Diocletian campaigns on the Danube and in the East.

293

Galerius and Constantius appointed Caesars, to serve respectively in the eastern and western halves of the empire. Constantius takes Boulogne, the headquarters of Carausius, who is murdered and supplanted as ruler of Britain by his finance officer, Allectus.

296

Constantius’ troops defeat and kill Allectus, and slaughter his Frankish mercenaries in London.

c. 297

Diocletian begins dividing the provinces into smaller units.

298

Great victories by Galerius over the Persians.

301

Diocletian’s edict on prices.

303

Edict against the Christians. Diocletian visits Rome for the only time.

305

Diocletian abdicates, forcing Maximian to do the same, and retires to his palace at Split. Galerius and Constantius become Augusti; Maximinus, nephew and adopted son of Galerius, and Flavius Severus are the new Caesars.

306

Constantius dies at York while mounting a campaign against the Picts. His son Constantine is proclaimed Augustus by the troops in Britain. Galerius, having given the title of Augustus to Severus, appoints Constantine Caesar. In Rome, Maxentius, son of Maximian, is proclaimed Augustus, but Maximian comes out of retirement and reclaims his title.

307

Constantine, now in charge of his father’s former territories of Britain, Gaul and Spain, is visited by Maximian, who appoints him Augustus and gives him his daughter Fausta in marriage.

308

At Carnuntum in Pannonia, Galerius gives the title of Augustus to Valerius Licinianus Licinius, upon which Maximinus has his troops in the East proclaim him Augustus.

309–310

Galerius recognizes Constantine and Maximinus, who is Galerius’ nephew and adopted son, as Augusti.

310

Death of Maximian.

311

Galerius, Constantine and Licinius issue the Edict of Toleration, ending persecution of Christians. Death of Galerius. Maximinus drives Licinius out of Asia.

312

Vision of Constantine, who attributes his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge to the ‘god of the Christians’. With the suicide of Maxentius, Constantine becomes sole ruler of the western empire.

313

Constantine meets Licinius at Milan, and gives him his half-sister Constantia in marriage. They issue the Edict of Milan, ending persecution of Christians. In Nicomedia, Licinius issues an edict agreeing with Constantine on religious freedom. At Adrianople, Licinius defeats Maximinus, who commits suicide. Death of Diocletian.

315

Erection of Arch of Constantine.

316

War against Licinius, who cedes all his European territories except Thrace.

317

Constantine appoints three new Caesars: his sons Crispus (twelve), with whose mother he had had a long-term affair, and Constantine (about seven months), and Licinius’ son Licinius (twenty months).

322–323

Victories of Constantine over Sarmatians and Goths.

324

Licinius is defeated and killed, making Constantine sole ruler of the empire. Constantine appoints as Caesar his son Constantius.

325

Council of Nicaea, with Constantine in the chair. Formation of Nicene Creed.

326

Executions of the empress Fausta, Crispus and Licinius Junior.

330

Dedication of new capital city, Constantinople.

332

Great victory over the Goths, 40,000 of whom enter Roman service as allies.

333

Constantine appoints as Caesar his youngest son Constans.

334

Victories over the Sarmatians, 300,000 of whom settle within the empire.

335

Constantine appoints his nephew Flavius Dalmatius Caesar.

337

Baptism of Constantine, who dies on 22 May. Purge of rivals, including Dalmatius. Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans recognized as Augusti (9 September).

340

Constans defeats and kills Constantine II in Italy and takes his territories.

343

Trouble in northern Britain, to which Constans crosses in January.

350

Constans is replaced in a coup by Magnentius, and then murdered.

351

Magnentius is defeated by Constantius, who makes Gallus, nephew of Constantine I, Caesar in the East.

353

Magnentius’ suicide results in official reprisals against his supporters in Britain.

354

Gallus is executed for abusing his authority.

355

Julian, Gallus’ half-brother, is made Caesar with charge over Gaul and Britain, and marries Helena, Constantius’ sister. He wins victories over the Alamanni and Franks.

c. 356

The Picts and the Celtic Dál Riata (later known as the Scots) form an alliance against Rome.

361

Constantius dies in Cilicia while marching to oppose Julian, who has been declared Augustus by his troops. Julian enters Constantinople as emperor, having publicly declared his paganism.

363

Julian dies of wounds while retreating from an encounter during his eastern campaign. His soldiers declare as Augustus his senior staff officer, Jovian, who makes peace with the Persians.

364

Death of Jovian. A convention of civilian and military officials at Nicaea elects as emperor Valentinian, a military commander, on condition he appoint a co-ruler. He chooses his brother Valens to rule the East, while he takes the West.

367

Revolt in Britain of Picts, Scots and Attacotti, aided by Franks and Saxons. Valentinian names as Augustus his eight-year-old son Gratian.

368–374

German Wars.

375

Death of Valentinian , whose four-year-old son, Valentinian II, is named Augustus by the troops, without the consent of Valens or Gratian.

378

Death of Valens.

379

Theodosius I, supreme commander against the Goths, succeeds Valens.

382

Theodosius makes a treaty with the Goths and gives them lands in Thrace and Lower Moesia. In northern Britain, Magnus Maximus, military commander in Britain, heavily defeats Picts and Scots.

383

Theodosius names as Augustus his infant son Arcadius. Maximus crosses to Gaul and defeats Gratian, who is murdered at Lyon while escaping to Italy.

384

Theodosius and Valentinian II recognize Maximus as Augustus over Britain, Gaul, Spain and Africa.

387

Theodosius marries Galla, sister of Valentinian II, and gives Serena, his niece and adoptive daughter, in marriage to his military commander Stilicho, the son of a Vandal captain. Maximus invades Italy and expels Valentinian II.

388

Maximus is defeated and executed by Theodosius. Valentinian II is again ruler of the western empire.

390

Massacre of inhabitants of Thessalonica in response to the murder of one of Theodosius’ commanders, for which he is refused communion and ordered by the archbishop of Milan to do penance.

391

Theodosius sanctions the destruction of the Temple of Serapis in Alexandria, and passes measures banning all forms of paganism.

392

Death of Valentinian II. At the instigation of Arbogast, Valentinian’s cavalry commander, Eugenius, a teacher and keeper of imperial dispatches, is proclaimed Augustus, but he is not recognized by Theodosius.

393

Theodosius appoints Honorius Augustus in the West, with Stilicho as his military commander and guardian.

395

Death of Theodosius. His elder son Arcadius is emperor in the East, and his younger son Honorius emperor in the West. Visigoths under Alaric are in Greece.

396

The division of the empire is now permanent. Augustine becomes bishop of Hippo.

398

Honorius marries Stilicho’s daughter Maria.

401

Alaric the Visigoth invades Italy.

402–403

Stilicho twice defeats Alaric, who, however, is allowed to escape.

404

Honorius transfers his court to Ravenna.

405–406

Ostrogoths under Radagaisus invade Italy, but they are destroyed by Stilicho at Fiesole.

406

Germanic tribes cross the frozen Rhine and occupy northern Gaul, causing devastation. Some reach Spain.

407

In Britain, Constantine III, a soldier, is proclaimed emperor. He crosses to Gaul and his authority is accepted both there and in Spain.

408

Constantine makes Arles his base and appoints as Caesar his elder son Constans II, with orders to put down a revolt in Spain by some relatives of Honorius. Honorius marries Thermantia, younger daughter of Stilicho. Death of Arcadius, who is succeeded by his seven-year-old son Theodosius II. Conspiracy against Stilicho, who is executed by Honorius. Alaric besieges Rome, but accepts bribes to withdraw.

409

Alaric again besieges Rome and proclaims the city prefect, Attalus, emperor.

410

Alaric besieges Rome for the third time. He deposes Attalus and tries to negotiate with Honorius, who declines to do so. Alaric sacks Rome, taking away Galla Placidia, Honorius’ twenty-year-old half-sister. The Rescript of Honorius is issued, allegedly informing the inhabitants of Britain that they must organize their own defence against Saxon invasions.

414

Death of Anthemius, effectively regent of the eastern empire, after which the role is undertaken by Theodosius’ elder sister, Pulcheria (later canonized).

418

Honorius grants Visigoths federate status in Gaul.

423

Death of Honorius.

429–438

Publication of the Theodosian Code of laws.

439

Vandals occupy most of North Africa and north-west Spain, and Visigoths, Burgundians, Alans and Franks occupy almost all of Gaul.

440–461

Leo I is pope.

446

Britons appeal to Aetius, consul for the third time, for help against the Saxon mercenaries introduced by Vortigern to fight the Picts.

450

Death of Theodosius II.

451

Attila the Hun invades Gaul, but is defeated for the only time.

452

Attila invades Italy, but Pope Leo persuades him to withdraw.

455

Vandals sack Rome from the sea. Avitus, a Gallic noble, is proclaimed emperor in Gaul, but on his arrival in Italy he is not recognized in the eastern empire and is forced to abdicate by the imperial commander-in-chief, Ricimer, who until his death in 472 effectively decides who will be emperor, and for how long.

457

The new emperor in the East is Leo I, a serving military officer.

472

Death of Ricimer, after which there are four western emperors in four years.

474

Death of Leo. His grandson, Leo II, whom he had made Augustus the previous year, rules for three weeks before appointing his father, Zeno, husband of Ariadne, daughter of Leo I, joint Augustus. Leo II dies of natural causes, after which Zeno rules alone until 491.

476

Romulus Augustulus (aged fourteen) is deposed by Odoacer, a Germanic mercenary commander, who informs Zeno, emperor in the East, that he will rule under his sovereignty. Establishment of a Gothic kingdom in Italy, and the end of the Roman empire in the West.

491

Anastasius, a minor palace official, succeeds Zeno and marries Ariadne.

518

Death of Anastasius, who is succeeded by Justin, commander of the elite palace guard.

527

Death of Justin, who is succeeded by his nephew and adopted son, Justinian.

528–529

Code of Justinian.

530–533

Digest of Justinian.

532–537

Building of St Sophia, the principal church of the Byzantine world.

559

Belisarius, a retired general, delivers Constantinople from the Huns.

565

Death of Justinian. He is succeeded by his palace administrator, Justin II, who rules until 578.

622

Traditional date for the founding of Islam.

633–655

Muslim conquest of Egypt, the Sassanid empire and Syria.

760

Foundation of Turkish empire.

1053

Split between Church of Rome and the Church in the East.

1095

Pope Urban II proclaims First Crusade.

1143–1180

Rule of Manuel I marks the high point of Byzantine civilization.

1187

Saladin captures Jerusalem.

1228–1229

Sixth Crusade, led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, recovers Jerusalem.

1244

Final loss of Jerusalem, to Egyptian Khwarazami.

1453

Fall of Constantinople to Mohammed II and the Turks. End of the eastern Roman empire.