Chapter 12 - Paul Webster

Faith, Power and Charity:
Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England

This chapter argues that whilst religion occupies a central place in historical writing on European monarchies, the personal religion of England’s kings is often accorded limited attention. Yet, between the Norman Conquest and the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the kings of England and their consorts engaged with the religious trends of their day: building monasteries, giving alms to the poor, endowing masses, chaplains and chapels so that prayers for their souls could be performed. They maintained the infrastructure of personal religion at court and commissioned high-status manuscripts for use in devotional activity. In going on pilgrimage and making gifts to churches they visited, rulers made, on the one hand, an ostentatious demonstration of apparent humility, whilst asserting their wealth and a claim to the reciprocal prayers of the religious (and hoped for intercession of the saints). Meanwhile, in founding and giving building materials to a range of churches, they made (or contributed) to permanent statements of power in the landscape. Their web of religious activity extended across the realm, whilst at Westminster, fast emerging as the heart of royal power, the king’s religious activity linked personal devotion to the concept of a dynastic coronation and burial church central to the power of a dynasty.

By Paul Webster

Paul Webster

Paul Webster received his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 2007. He now works at Cardiff University, where he co-ordinates the Exploring the Past adult learners progression pathway to degrees in the School of History, Archaeology and Religion. His research focuses on kingship and piety in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and his principal publications include monographs on King John and Religion (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2015) and a collection, co-edited with Dr Marie-Pierre Gelin (UCL) on The Cult of St Thomas Becket in the Plantagenet World (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2016).

Annotated Bibliography

1. On the Capetian kings of France and the royal abbey of Saint-Denis:

  • Autrand, Françoise, Claude Gauvard, and Jean-Marie Moeglin, Saint-Denis et la royauté: études offertes à Bernard Guenée. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999.
  • Beaune, Colette, The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Late Medieval France. Trans. by Susan Ross Huston, ed. by Frederic L. Cheyette. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
  • Grant, Lindy, Abbot Suger of St-Denis: Church and State in Early Twelfth Century France. London and New York: Longman, 1998.
  • Koziol, Geoffrey, “England, France, and the Problem of Sacrality in Twelfth-Century Ritual.” In Cultures of Power, edited by Thomas Bisson, 124-48. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
  • Spiegel, Gabrielle M, “The Cult of Saint Denis and Capetian Kingship.” Journal of Medieval History 1 (1975): 43-70.

2. On religion and kingship in the reign of King Louis IX of France (r. 1226-70):

  • Billot, Claudine, “Le message spirituel et politique de la Sainte-Chapelle de Paris.” Revue Mabillon 63 (1992): 119-41.
  • Branner, Robert, Saint Louis and the Court Style in Gothic Architecture. London: A. Zwemmer, 1965.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Louis IX and Liturgical Memory.” In Memory and Commemoration in Medieval Culture, edited by Elma Brenner, Meredith Cohen and Mary Franklin-Brown, 261-76. Farnham: Ashgate, 2013.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “The Place of the Crusades in the Sanctification of St Louis.” In Crusades: Medieval Worlds in Conflict, edited by Thomas Madden, James L. Naus, and Vincent Ryan, 195-209. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
  • Kaufmann, Martin, “The Image of St Louis.” In Kings and Kingship in Medieval Europe, edited by Anne J. Duggan, 265-86. London: King’s College London, Centre for Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 1993.
  • See also below, (5a) On the Crusades of the Capetian kings of France.

3. On religion and royal power under King Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314):

  • Brown, Elizabeth, The Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial. Aldershot: Variorum, 1991.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Boniface VIII, Philip the Fair, and the Sanctity of Louis IX.” Journal of Medieval History 29 (2003): 1-26.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth, “Philip the Fair and the Cult of St Louis.” In Religion and National Identity, edited by Stuart Mews, Studies in Church History 18 (1982): 201-14.

4. On the Castilian royal family and the abbey of Las Huelgas at Burgos:

  • Alonso Álvarez, Raquel, “La memoria de Alfonso VIII de Castilla en las Huelgas de Burgos: arquitectura y liturgia funeraria.” In 1212, un año, un reinado, un tiempo de despegue: XXIII Semana de Estudios Medievales, Nájera, del 30 de julio al 3 de agosto de 2012, edited by. Esther López Ojeda, 349-76. Logroño: Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 2013.
  • Walker, Rose, “Leonor of England, Plantagenet Queen of King Alfonso VIII of Castile, and her Foundation of the Cistercian Abbey of Las Huelgas. In Imitation of Fontevraud?” Journal of Medieval History 31 (2005): 346-68.
  • Yarza Luaces, Joaquín, and Matteo Mancini (eds), Vestiduras ricas: El Monasterio de Las Huelgas y su época, 1170-1340. Madrid: Patrimonio Nacional, 2005.

5. On crusading, the religious military orders, and European rulers:
(a) France:

  • Berry, Virginia Gingerick, trans. Odo of Deuil, De Profectione Ludovici VII in orientem: The Journey of Louis VII to the East. New York: W. W. Norton, 1965.
  • Bradbury, Jim, Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Harlow: Longman, 1998. Chapter 3.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Louis IX, Crusade, and the Promise of Joshua in the Holy Land.” Journal of Medieval History 34 (2009): 245-74.
  • Graboïs, Aryeh, “The Crusade of King Louis VII: A Reconsideration.” In Crusade and Settlement, edited by Peter W. Edbury, 94-104. Cardiff: University College Cardiff Press, 1985.
  • Jordan, William Chester, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.
  • Naus, James, Constructing Kingship: The Capetian Monarchs of France and the Early Crusades. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016.
  • Shaw, Margaret Renée Bryers, trans. Joinville and Villehardouin: Chronicles of the Crusades. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1963.

(b) Germany:

  • Abulafia, David, Frederick II. London: Pimlico, 1988. Chapter 5.
  • Hiestand, Rudolf, “Kingship and Crusade in Twelfth-Century Germany.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 235-65. London and Oxford: The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Loud, Graham A., trans. The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick and Related Texts. Farnham: Ashgate, 2010.

(c) Iberia:

  • Barquero Goñi, Carlos, “The Hospitallers and the Kings of Navarre in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 349-54. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Edwards, John, “Reconquista and Crusade in Fifteenth-Century Spain.” In Crusading in the Fifteenth Century, edited by Norman Housley, 163-81, 235-7. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  • Fletcher, Richard A, “Reconquest and Crusade in Spain, c. 1050-1150.” In Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, series 5, 37 (1987): 31-47.
  • Gómez, Miguel, “Las Navas de Tolosa and the Culture of Crusade in the Kingdom of Castile.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 4 (2012): 53-7.
  • Rodríguez García, José Manuel, “Alfonso X and the Teutonic Order: An Example of the Role of the International Military Orders in Mid Thirteenth-Century Castile.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 319-27. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Vann, Theresa M, “‘Our father has won a great victory’: The Authorship of Berenguela’s Account of the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.” In Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 3 (2011): 79-92.

6. On European kings, the response to heresy, and the Trial of the Templars:

  • Barber, Malcolm. “The Trial of the Templars Revisited.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 329-42. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Burgtorf, Jochen, Paul Crawford and Helen Nicholson (eds), The Debate on the Trial of the Templars (1307-1314). Farnham: Ashgate, 2010.
  • Forey, Alan, The Fall of the Templars in the Crown of Aragon. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001.
  • Given, James, “Chasing Phantoms: Philip IV and the Fantastic.” In Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages, edited by Michael Frassetto, 271-89. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
  • Théry, Julien, “Une hérésie d’état, Philippe le Bel, le procès des ‘perfides Templiers’, et la pontificalisation de la royauté française.” In Médiévales 60 (2011): 157-85.

7. On European rulers and their relationship with the Jewish community:

  • Abulafia, David, “The King and the Jews.” In The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages, edited by Christoph Cluse, 43-54. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004.
  • Brown, Elizabeth, “Philip V, Charles IV, and the Jews of France: The Alleged Explusion of 1322.” In Speculum 66 (1991): 294-329.
  • Burns, Robert I, “Jaume I and the Jews of the Kingdom of Valencia.” In Jaime I y su época, 245-322. Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 1980.
  • Dejoux, Marie, “Gouvernement et pénitence. Les enquêtes de réparation des usures juives de Louis IX (1247-1270).” In Annales 69 (2014): 849-74.
  • Iancu, Danièle and Elie Nicholas (eds), Philippe le Bel et les juifs du royaume de France (1306). Paris : Éditions du Cerf, 2012.
  • Jordan, William Chester, The French Monarchy and the Jews. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989.
  • Jordan, William Chester, Ideology and Royal Power in Medieval France: Kingship, Crusades and the Jews. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001.
  • Lower, Michael, “Conversion and St Louis’s Last Crusade.” In Journal of Ecclesiastical History 58 (2007): 211-31.
  • Patschovsky, Alexander, “The Relationship between the Jews of Germany and the King (11th-14th Centuries): A European Comparison.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 193-218. London and Oxford: The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Tolan, John, “Royal Policy and Conversion of Jews to Christianity in Thirteenth-Century Europe.” In Contesting Inter-Religious Conversion in the Medieval World, edited by Yaniv Fox and Yosi Yisraeli, 96-111. London and New York: Routledge, 2017.

8. On the ‘royal touch’ in medieval England and France:

  • Barlow, Frank. “The King’s Evil.” In English Historical Review 95 (1980): 3-27.
  • Brogan, Stephen, The Royal Touch in Early Modern England: Politics, Medicine and Sin. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2015.
  • Buc, Philippe. “David’s Adultery with Bathsheba and the Healing Power of the Capetian Kings.” In Viator 24 (1993): 101-20.
  • Huntington, Joanna. “Saintly Power as a Model of Royal Authority: The “Royal Touch” and Other Miracles in the Early Vitae of Edward the Confessor.” In Aspects of Power and Authority in the Middle Ages, edited by Brenda Bolton and Christine Meek, 327-43. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007.

9. Comparisons of the rulers of England with those of France:

  • Binski, Paul, Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995.
  • Branner, Robert, “Westminster Abbey and the French Court Style.” In Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 23 (1964): 3-18.
  • Gouttebroze, Jean-Guy, “Deux modèles de sainteté royale: Edouard le Confesseur et saint Louis.” In Cahiers de Civilization Médiévale 42 (1999): 242-58.
  • Jordan, William Chester, A Tale of Two Monasteries: Westminster and Saint-Denis in the Thirteenth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  • Phillips, Katie, “The Leper and the King: The Patronage and Perception of Lepers and Leprosy by King Henry III of England and King Louis IX of France.” PhD diss., University of Reading, 2018.
  • Vincent, Nicholas, The Holy Blood: King Henry III and the Westminster Blood Relic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

10. Works by Elizabeth Hallam on royal religious patronage:

  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Henry II, Richard I and the Order of Grandmont.” In Journal of Medieval History 1 (1975): 165-86.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Henry II as a Founder of Monasteries.” In Journal of Ecclesiastical History 28 (1977): 113-32.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Royal Burial and the Cult of Kingship in England and France, 1060-1330.” In Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982): 359-80.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Monasteries as “War Memorials”: Battle Abbey and La Victoire.” In The Church and War, edited by William J. Shiels, Studies in Church History 20 (1983): 46-57.

11. Works by Michael Penman on the devotional activity of the kings of the Scots:

  • Penman, Michael. “Christian Days and Knights: The Religious Devotions and Court of David II of Scotland, 1329-71.” In Historical Research 75 (2002): 249-72.
  • Penman, Michael. “The Bruce Dynasty, Becket, and Scottish Pilgrimage to Canterbury, c.1178-c.1404.” In Journal of Medieval History 32 (2006): 346-70.
  • Penman, Michael. ““Sacred Food for the Soul”: In Search of the Devotions to Saints of Robert Bruce, King of Scotland 1306-1329.” In Speculum 88 (2013): 1035-62.

12. On the rulers of England and the Jewish community:

  • Brand, Paul, “Jews and the Law in England, 1275-90.” In English Historical Review 115 (2000), 1138-1158.
  • Brand, Paul, “New Light on the Expulsion of the Jewish Community from England in 1290.” In Reading Medieval Studies 40 (2014), 101-16.
  • Carpenter, David, “Crucifixion and Conversion: King Henry III and the Jews in 1255.” In Laws, Lawyers and Texts: Studies in Medieval Legal History in Honour of Paul Brand, edited by Susanne Jenks, Jonathan Rose and Christopher Whittick, 130-48. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
  • Fogle, Lauren, “The Domus Conversorum: The Personal Interest of Henry III.” In Jewish Historical Studies 41 (2007), 1-7.
  • Hyams, Paul R., “The Jews in Medieval England, 1066-1290.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 174-92. London and Oxford, The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Menache, Sophia, “The King, the Church and the Jews: Some Considerations on the Expulsions from England and France.” In Journal of Medieval History 13 (1987), 223-36.
  • Rees Jones, Sarah, and Sethina Watson (eds), Christians and Jews in Angevin England: The York Massacre of 1190, Narratives and Contexts. York: York Medieval Press, 2013.
  • Richardson, Henry Gerald, The English Jewry Under Angevin Kings. London: Methuen, 1960.
  • Skinner, Patricia (ed.), The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary and Archaeological Perspectives. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2003.
  • Stacey, Robert C, “Parliamentary Negotiation and the Expulsion of the Jews from England.” In Thirteenth Century England VI, edited by Michael Prestwich, Richard H. Britnell and Robin Frame, 77-101. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1997.
  • Streit, Kevin, “The Expansion of the English Jewish Community in the Reign of King Stephen.” In Albion 25 (1993), 177-92.
  • Tolan, John, “The First Imposition of a Badge on European Jews: The English Royal Mandate of 1218.” In The Character of Christian-Muslim Encounter, edited by Douglas Pratt, Jon Hoover, John Davies, and John Chesworth, 145-66. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
  • Tolan, John, “Les juifs du roi: conflit et coexistence dans l’Angleterre d’Henri III (1216-1272).” In Conditioned Identities: Wished-For and Unwished-For Identities, edited by Flocel Sabaté, 49-70. Bern: Peter Lang, 2015.

Bibliography

Manuscripts

Cambridge Cambridge University Library Ms. Ee.3.59
London British Library Additional Ms. 18850
Additional Ms. 24686
Additional Ms. 57950
Royal Ms. 2 B VII
Royal Ms. 1 E IX
Royal Ms. 15 E I
London Lambeth Palace Ms. 474
London The National Archives E101 (Exchequer Accounts Various)
E101/349/30
E 101/411/9
E361 (Exchequer: Pipe Office: Enrolled Wardrobe and Household Accounts)
E373 (Exchequer: Pipe Office: Pipe Rolls)
E403 (Exchequer of Receipt: Issue Rolls and Registers)
E404 (Exchequer of Receipt: Warrants for Issues)
London The National Gallery NG4451
Munich Bayerische Staatsbibliothek cod. gall. 16
Oxford Bodleian Library Ms. Douce 180

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Online Resources

“Richard II’s Treasure: The Riches of A Medieval King.”Accessed 27 April 2017. https://www.history.ac.uk/richardII/index.html.

Reading and viewing lists

  • Bent, Ian. “The English Chapel Royal before 1300.” Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 90 (1963-64): 77-95.
  • Dixon-Smith, Sally. “The Image and Reality of Alms-Giving in the Great Halls of Henry III.” Journal of the British Archaeological Association 152 (1999): 79-96.
  • Gameson, Richard. “The Earliest English Royal Books.” In 1000 Years of Royal Books and Manuscripts, edited by Kathleen Doyle and Scot McKendrick, 3-35. London: British Library, 2013.
  • Gordon, Dillian, Lisa Monnas and Caroline Elam, eds. The Regal Image of Richard II and the Wilton Diptych. London: Harvey Miller, 1997.
  • Green, Judith. “The Piety and Patronage of Henry I.” Haskins Society Journal 10 (2001): 1-16.
  • Koziol, Geoffrey. “England, France, and the Problem of Sacrality in Twelfth-Century Ritual.” In Cultures of Power, edited by Thomas Bisson, 124-48. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
  • McKendrick, Scot, John Lowden and Kathleen Doyle, eds., with Joanna Frońska and Deirdre Jackson. Royal Manuscripts: The Genius of Illumination. London: British Library, 2011.
  • Ormrod, W. Mark. “The Personal Religion of Edward III.” Speculum 64 (1989): 849-77.
  • Prestwich, Michael. “The Piety of Edward I.” In England in the Thirteenth Century, edited by W. Mark Ormrod, 120-28. Grantham: Harlaxton College, 1985.
  • Vale, Malcolm. Henry V: The Conscience of a King. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016.
  • Vincent, Nicholas. “The Pilgrimages of the Angevin Kings of England 1154-1272.” In Pilgrimage: The English Experience from Becket to Bunyan, edited by Colin Morris and Peter Roberts, 12-45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  • Webster, Paul. King John and Religion. Woodbridge: Boydell, 2015.

Keywords

Aachen; Aethelberht I, king of Kent (d. c. 616); Aethelstan, king of England (d. 939); Agincourt, battle of (1415); Alfonso VI, king of Castile-Léon (r. 1072-1109); Alfonso VIII, king of Castile (r. 1157-1214); Alfred, king of England (r. 871-899); Alphonso Psalter; Anne of Bohemia, queen of England (d. 1394); Anne of Burgundy, duchess of Bedford (alive 1404-1432); Bamberg; Beaulieu Abbey (Hampshire); Bedford Hours; Benedictine order; Bertha, Frankish princess, queen of Kent (d. c. 601); Bloch, Marc; Bolingbroke, Henry – see Henry IV, king of England; Canossa; Carthusian order; Celestine order; Charlemage, king of the Franks (r. 768-814), king of the Lombards (r. 774-814), emperor (r. 800-814), canonised 1165; Charles the Bald, king of the Franks (r. 840-877), emperor (r. 875-877); Cistercian order; Concordat of Worms (1122); Conrad III, emperor (r. 1138-1152); Devotional texts; Dissolution of the Monasteries; Dominican order of friars; Douce Apocalypse; Edgar, king of England (d. 975); Edmund, King and Martyr (d. 869, venerated as a saint); Edward the Confessor, king of England (r. 1042-1066, canonised 1161); Edward I, king of England (r. 1274-1307); Edward II, king of England (r. 1307-1327); Edward III, king of England (r. 1327-1377); Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of England, duchess of Aquitaine (d. 1204); Eleanor of Castile, queen of England (alive 1241-1290); Eleanor of Provence, queen of England (alive c.1223-1291); Eleanor, queen of Castile (r. 1174-1214); The Empire; Frederick I, Barbarossa, emperor (r. 1152-1190); Frederick II, emperor (r. 1215-1250); Gandersheim nunnery; George II, king of Great Britain and Ireland (r. 1714-1760); Gregory VII, pope (r. 1073-1085); Hallam, Elizabeth; Henry I, king of England (r. 1100-1135); Henry II, emperor (d. 1024, canonised 1146); Henry III, emperor (r. 1039-1056); Henry IV, emperor (r. 1056-1105/6); Henry II, king of England (r. 1154-1189); Henry III, king of England (r. 1216-1272); Henry IV, king of England (r. 1399-1413); Henry V, king of England (r. 1413-1422); Henry VI, king of England (r. 1422-1461 and 1470-1471); Henry VII, king of England (r. 1485-1509); Henry the Young King (d. 1183); Isabella (d. 1241), daughter of King John of England, sister of King Henry III of England, third wife of Emperor Frederick II; Isabella of France, queen of England (alive 1295-1358); Isabella of Brienne (1212-1228), queen of Jerusalem, first wife of Emperor Frederick II; James I, king of Aragon (r. 1213-1276); John, duke of Bedford (alive 1389-1435); John, king of England (r. 1199-1216); Kantorowicz, Ernst; Kingdom of Aragon; Kingdom of Castile;

Kingdom of Castile-Léon; Kingdom of England; Kingdom of France; Kingdom of the Scots; Kunigunde, empress (d. 1040, canonised 1200); Las Huelgas Abbey, Burgos; Laudes Regiae; Liege; Lollardy; Louis VI, king of France (r. 1108-1137); Louis VII, king of France (r. 1137-1180); Louis VIII, king of France (r. 1223-1226); Louis IX (St Louis), king of France (r. 1226-1270); Magdeburg Abbey; The Magi; Mary, the Virgin; Norman Conquest; Otto I, king of East Francia (r. 936-973), king of Italy (r. 951-973), and emperor (r. 962-973); Personal Religion; Philip II, king of France (r. 1180-1223); Philip IV, king of France (r. 1285-1314); Philip VI, king of France (r. 1328-1350); Quedlinburg nunnery; Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (r. 1194-1222); Reading Abbey; Regularis Concordia; Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans (r. 1257-1272); Richard I, king of England (r. 1189-1199); Richard II, king of England (r. 1377-1399); Richard III, king of England (r. 1483-1485); Robert II, ‘the Pious’, king of the Franks (r. 987-1031); Robert Curthose (alive c. 1050-1134), duke of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror; Rouen Cathedral; Royal household; Rudolf I of Habsburg, king of the Romans (r. 1273-1291); Saint-Denis Abbey; Sainte-Chapelle; St Denis; St Edmund – see above, Edmund King and Martyr; St Edward the Confessor – see above, Edward the Confessor; St John the Baptist; St Louis – see above, Louis IX; St Rémi; St Peter’s Abbey, Gloucester; St Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster; Sheen Abbey; Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester (alive c.1208-1265); Speyer Cathedral; Stephen, king of England (r. 1135-1154); Suger, abbot of Saint-Denis (abbot 1122-51); Treasure Roll; Vale, Malcolm; Vale Royal Abbey (Cheshire); Wales; Westminster Abbey; William the Conqueror, king of England (r. 1066-1087); William of Poitiers, royal chaplain; Wilton Diptych

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