Chapter 1

Understanding the Mechanisms of Monarchy


This chapter looks at monarchy through a wide-reaching theoretical lens, examining the key elements which underpin monarchy across all eras, cultural, and geographical contexts. It posits a conceptual framework for understanding monarchy through the interplay of nine key elements: power, law, and religion; ceremonial, representation, and display; and finally dynasty, court, and realm. By examining how these key elements interact and form the foundation upon which monarchy rests, we gain a deeper understanding of how rulership is constructed and functions. This chapter intends to provide a theoretical basis for the case studies in the collection which follow and gives an introduction to the central ideas which run through the rest of the volume.

By Elena Woodacre


Dr. Elena (Ellie) Woodacre

Dr. Elena (Ellie) Woodacre is a specialist in medieval and Early Modern queenship and a Senior Lecturer in Early Modern European History at the University of Winchester. Her publications include her monograph The Queens Regnant of Navarre. Succession, Politics and Partnership (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) and she has edited/co-edited several collections including, Queenship in the Mediterranean (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge Scholars, 2014), Royal Mothers and their Ruling Children (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), Virtuous or Villainess? The Image of the Royal Mother from the Early Medieval to the Early Modern Eras (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), A Companion to Global Queenship (ARC Medieval Press, 2018), Premodern Rulers and Postmodern Viewers (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) and she is the lead editor of History of Monarchy (Routledge). She is currently developing a monograph on Joan of Navarre and a short work on the historiography of queenship studies. Elena is the organizer of the ‘Kings & Queens’ conference series and the founder of the international Royal Studies Network (www.royalstudiesnetwork.org), a resource which aims to bring together scholars who work on monarchical topics. She is the Editor-in-Chief of the Royal Studies Journal, an academic, peer-reviewed, multi-lingual and fully open-access publication which was launched in 2014. In addition, she is the lead editor of ARC Humanities Press’ Gender and Power in the Premodern World book series.

She is also the co-editor of the Queens of England series at Routledge

Further author information

Elena Woodacre on Academia.edu

Elena Woodacre at Winchester University

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Related Chapters

Chris Jones: Introduction (See Chapter 2)

Lucinda Dean: Introduction (See Chapter 11)

Russell Martin: Introduction (See Chapter 24)

Zita Rohr: Introduction (See Chapter 35)

Chapter 2

Models & Concepts of Rulership


Examining models and concepts of rulership formulated in societies where monarchy was deeply relevant can offer new insights into not only how monarchical institutions operated but why they proved so effective and long-lasting. The eight chapters that comprise this section focus on two such societies: western Europe and the Muslim world. Each provides a case study in three aspects of monarchy: the development of the “model” ruler; the evolution of institutional frameworks; and the perennial problem of establishing legitimacy. A range of examples are drawn from western Europe in the later medieval and the Early Modern eras alongside the Almohad caliphate of the twelfth- and thirteenth-century Maghreb and the modern post-War Arab monarchies. Each highlights not only the vibrancy of monarchy as a concept but its elasticity as a model of rulership. This introductory chapter explores the section’s underlying themes by considering the way in which medieval theorists such as Giles of Rome and John of Paris understood the role and nature of monarchy. It argues that monarchy is so flexible and adaptive that it has been able to accommodate religious doctrines that have either little place for the worldly or that tend to subsume government within their doctrinal framework.

By Chris Jones


Chris Jones

Dr. Chris Jones is an Associate Professor at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand whose research explores the history of political ideas. His work has a particular focus upon France in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and he is especially interested in the thought of medieval chroniclers. His extensive publications in this area include his monograph, Eclipse of Empire? Perceptions of the Western Empire and Its Rulers in Late Medieval France (Brepols, 2007), and, most recently, a triptych of articles concerning the thought of the late thirteenth-century Benedictine chronicler of Sens, Geoffroi de Courlon. Among his other interests is the thought of the Dominican theologian John Quidort of Paris, concerning which he edited John of Paris: Beyond Royal and Papal Power (Brepols, 2015). Chris’s research also explores medieval and Early Modern legacies in Aotearoa New Zealand. In connection with the latter, he has co-edited Treasures of the University of Canterbury Library (with Bronwyn Matthews and Jennifer Clement; Canterbury University Press, 2011) and the interdisciplinary volume Magna Carta and New Zealand - History, Law and Politics in Aotearoa (with Stephen Winter; Palgrave Macmillan, 2017). He initiated, and is Director of, the Canterbury Roll Project, an innovative and ongoing research-led digital venture. The project produced a new edition and translation of Aotearoa New Zealand’s most significant medieval manuscript in 2017. Its blending of digital humanities and cutting-edge scientific research with traditional scholarship has received extensive coverage in the international press, including a lead article in The Times. He has also edited A Road Less Travelled: The Medieval and Early Modern World Reflected in New Zealand Collections, which appeared as a special issue of the journal Parergon in 2015, and curated several exhibitions. Chris is the serving President of the Australian & New Zealand Association for Medieval & Early Modern Studies Inc. (ANZAMEMS), a position to which he was elected in 2015, and is presently developing Making the Medieval Relevant (De Gruyter) with Conor Costick and Klaus Oschema.

Further author information

Canterbury Roll Project

Research Profile

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––. “Understanding Political Conceptions in the Later Middle Ages: The French Imperial Candidatures and the Idea of the Nation-State.” Viator 42, no. 2 (2011): 83-114.

––. Eclipse of Empire? Perceptions of the Western Empire and Its Rulers in Late-Medieval France, Cursor mundi 1. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007.

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Woodacre, Elena, ed. A Companion to Global Queenship. Bradford: ARC-Humanities Press, 2018.

Related Chapters

Elena Woodacre: Understanding the Mechanisms of Monarchy (See Chapter 1)

Lucinda Dean: Introduction (See Chapter 11)

Russell Martin: Introduction (See Chapter 24)

Zita Rohr: Introduction (See Chapter 35)

Chapter 3

The “Wise King” Topos in Context:
Royal Literacy and Political Theology in Medieval Western Europe (c. 1000-1200)


Not long ago the medieval royal court was barely a category of thought in the history of western culture or science, but in present times the juxtaposition of “science” and “royal court” in the Middle Ages no longer strikes the reader as something odd.

However, in the eleventh century, the prince’s wisdom, after the short-lived splendor of the Carolingian and Ottonian ages, would remain in a secondary position in the royal ideology. This was logical to a certain extent, since, as a consequence of both the Feudal Revolution and the Gregorian Reform, the new discourse on kingship did not have much place for royal learning.

The Twelfth Century Renaissance completely changed this trend and brought again the sapiential topos to the frontline of political thought. In Norman Sicily and Plantagenet England the medieval royal court not only attracted scholars but also became a place of science, and the royal patron, when not personally implicated in scholarship, played a key role in the advancement of learning.

To obtain the political legitimacy attached to the Solomonic ideal was crucial for newcomers like the Houses of Plantagenet and Hauteville. The influence of Carolingian models cannot be overestimated here, but we find also new developments such as the bureaucrat-king or the literate knight topoi.

By Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña


Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña

Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña is Senior Lecturer in Medieval History at the Universidad CEU San Pablo, Madrid. His research focuses on the cultural history of rulership in medieval Europe. He is the author of Los reyes sabios. Cultura y poder en la Antigüedad Tardía y la Alta Edad Media (2008) and editor of serval volumes including Carlomagno y la civilización carolingia. Estudios conmemorativos en el 1200 aniversario (814-2014).

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Manuscripts

Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek Bibl. 22

Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek Bibl. 76

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Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 4453

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Related Chapters

Laura Fábián: The Biblical King Solomon in Representations of Western European Medieval Royalty (See Chapter 4)

Estelle Paranque: Royal Representation through the Father and Warrior Figures in Early Modern Europe (See Chapter 19)

Chapter 4

The Biblical King Solomon in Representations of Western European Medieval Royalty


King Solomon, the famously wise ruler of the Old Testament and successor to King David, was a popular model for kings of Europe’s Middle Ages. This chapter aims to examine the way in which King Solomon was employed as a royal exempla in the medieval West between the 9th and the 14th centuries.

Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious were active supporters of the biblical typology. In the Byzantine court Leo VI the Wise was also concerned to present himself as a new Solomon. In the 13th century, Saint Louis IX of France’s Solomonic image was mostly significant at the time of his canonization in creating his hagiographic portrait; his contemporary, Henry III of England, selected King Solomon for his representation in the Painted Chamber of Westminster. The magical part of the Solomonic image also featured in the 13-14th centuries, appearing, for example, at the court of Alfonso the Wise, who was interested in commissioning magical treatises that contained allusions to Solomon. Charles V “the Wise” developed his own image of the wise kingship image with the help of the biblical king. This chapter shows the expanse of using King Solomon as royal model, and focuses on the ambivalence of this biblical exempla.

By Laura Fábián


Laura Fábián

Laura Fábián is a PhD candidate at Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Humanities, Institute of History Medieval and Early Modern World History Doctoral Program. She is the author of several articles on medieval kings and the biblical king Solomon, which have appeared in Világtörténet and Micae Mediaevales VI . Fiatal történészek dolgozatai a középkori Magyarországról és Európáról, among other publications.

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Pryds, Darleen N. The King Embodies the World. Robert d’Anjou and the Politics of Preaching. Brill, Leiden, 2000.

Rapp, Claudia. “Old Testament Models for Emperors in Early Byzantinum.” In The Old Testament in Byzantinum, edited by Paul Magdalino and Robert S. Nelson, 175–197. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 2010.

Riché, Pierre. “La Bible et la vie politique dans le haut Moyen Age.” In Le Moyen Age et la Bible, edited by Pierre Riché and Guy Lobrichon, 385–400. Paris: Beauchesne, 1984.

Rosario, Iva. Art and Propaganda, Charles IV of Bohemia (1346–1378). Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2000.

Schlotheuber, Eva. “Drugi Salomon i ’mądry król’. ’Teologia władzy’ i praktyka władania cesarza Karola IV (zm. 1378).” Prace Historyczne 141 (2014): 613–633.

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Sherman, Claire Richter. The Portraits of Charles V of France (1338–1380). New York: New York University Press, 1969.

Sneddon, Clive R. “The Old French Bible: The First Complete Vernacular Bible in Western Europe.ˮ In The Practice of the Bible in the Middle Ages: Production, Reception, and Performance in Western Christianity, edited by Susan Boynton and Diane J. Reilly, 296–314. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.

Stahl, Harvey. Picturing Kingship. History and Painting in the Psalter of Saint Louis. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008.

Rodríguez de la Peña, Manuel Alejandro. “Rex strenuus valde litteratus: Strength and Wisdom as Royal Virtues in Medieval Spain (1085–1284).” In Princely Virtues in the Middle Ages 1200–1500, edited by Cary Nederman and István Bejczy, 33–50. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007.

Rodríguez de la Peña, Manuel Alejandro. “Sapiential rulership in the Eleventh Century: The Political Theology of Royal Wisdom.” In Political Theology in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Discourses, Rites, and Representations, edited by Jaume Aurell, Monserrat Herrero, and Angela Concetta Miceli Stout, 89-110. Turnhout: Brepols, 2017.

Steger, Hugo. David rex et Propheta. König David als Vorbildlicher Verkörperung des Herrschers und Dichters im Mittelalter, nach Bilddarstellungen des achten bis zwölften Jahrhunderts. Nuremberg: Hans Carl, 1961.

Tate, William Carroll. Solomonic iconography in early Stuart England. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001.

Torijano, Pablo A. Solomon the Esoteric King. From King to Magus, Development of a Tradition. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2002.

Tougher, Shaun. “The Wisdom of Leo VI.” In New Constantines: The Rhythm of Imperial Renewal in Byzantium, 4th–13th Centuries, edited by Paul Magdalino, 171–179. Aldershot: Ashgate Variorum, 1994.

Véronèse, Julien and Jean-Patrice Boudet. “Le secret dans la magie rituelle médiévale.” Micrologus, Natura, Scienze e Società Medievali, XIV, (2006): 101–150.

Weiss, Daniel H. “Architectural Symbolism and the Decoration of the Ste.-Chapelle.” The Art Bulletin 77 (1995): 308–320.

Weiss, Daniel H. Art and Crusade in the Age of Saint Louis. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Weiss, Daniel H. “The Three Solomon Portraits in the Arsenal Old Testament and the Construction of Meaning in Crusader Painting.” Arte Medievale 2 (1992): 15–38.

Wolfram, Herwig. Conrad II, 990–1039: Emperor of Three Kingdoms. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania University Press, 2006.

Wormald, Francis. “The Throne of Solomon and St. Edward’s Chair.” In De Artibus opuscula XL. Essays in Honour of Erwin Panofsky, edited by Millard Meiss, 532–539. New York: New York University Press, 1961.

Zweig, Benjamin. “Picturing the Fallen King: Royal Patronage and the Image of Saul's Suicide.” In Patronage: Power and Agency in Medieval Art, edited by Colum Hourihane, 151–174. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.

Related Chapters

Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña: The “Wise King” topos in context: Royal Literacy and Political Theology in Medieval Western Europe (c.1000-1200) (See Chapter 3)

Paul Webster: Faith, Power and Charity: Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England (See Chapter 12)

Estelle Paranque: Royal Representation through the Father and Warrior Figures in Early Modern Europe (See Chapter 19)

Anna Duch: Chasing St. Louis: The English Monarchy's Pursuit of Sainthood (See Chapter 20)

Chapter 5

Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme


The reign of Alfonso X, known as the Wise (1252-1284), was of the greatest importance to all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. Even leaving aside aspects of territorial definition executed in his time, and the abundant evidences about his high cultural background, or even of his political ambition, we just have to focus on the legislative plan, to conclude that this was an unusual reign for the thirteenth century.

The three legal compilations assigned to the labor of jurists of his reign had the goal of unifying the old Leonese laws with Castilian customs, creating conditions for their adaptation in the newly conquered lands. As, with this paper, our aim is to observe the process of construction of regal power, as it was performed in its origins in the Western kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, we will mainly focus on two of these legal works – El Espéculo de las leyes and Las Siete Partidas. Based on them we would like to establish how, in the Western Iberian Peninsula, regal power was a concept that did not involve the king alone or his counsellors, but his all family and servers had a proper role that is still noticeable until at least the 15th century.

By Manuela Santos Silva


Manuela Santos Silva

Manuela Santos Silva is an Associated Professor of Medieval History at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the University of Lisbon (Faculdade de Letras – Universidade de Lisboa) with a large experience in research, teaching, and Master and PhD supervision. Her earliest research focused on a coastal Portuguese region where the Queens of Portugal’s seigniorial territories were often located. From the study of the queens’ towns her research evolved to the knowledge of the queens’ statute and competences and from then to the study of the role of the royal family and their households within the earliest Iberian monarchies.

With two other colleagues she coordinated a series of biographies of the Portuguese Queens of Portugal and wrote the biography of Philippa of Lancaster, queen of Portugal. More recently, she coordinated with two other colleagues on a series on the Portuguese Royal Household’s Marriages.

Bibliography

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Ordenações Afonsinas. Lº I. Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1984.
Orme, Nicholas. From Childhood to Chivalry. The education of the English Kings and aristocracy 1066-1530. London & New York: Methuen, 1984.

Ortiz Palanques, Marco. “El concepto de rey, reino y territorio en las siete partidas.” In Revista Filosofia 23 (2012): 139-162.

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Rodrigues, Ana Maria S. A. and Manuela Santos Silva. “Private properties, seigniorial tributes and jurisdictional rents: the income of the Queens of Portugal in the Middle Ages.” In Women and Wealth in Late Medieval Europe, edited by Theresa Earenfight, 209-228. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

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Related Chapters

Emily Ward: Child kings and guardianship in North-Western Europe c.1050-1250 (See Chapter 32)

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Kim Bergqvist: Kings and Nobles on the Fringe of Christendom: A comparative perspective on Monarchy and Aristocracy in the European Middle Ages (See Chapter 37)

Chapter 6

Personal Union, Composite Monarchy, and “Multiple Rule”


In early modern Europe, the union of realms – kingdoms or principalities linked by the rule of one monarch – was a common phenomenon, andnd it continues to be a form that flourishes today. This chapter traces the history of personal unions and composite monarchies from the High Middle Ages to the early nineteenth century. An analysis of these developments provides an opportunity to look at questions of rulership and statehood, of national or regional identities, and of political culture in a broader sense.

This overview of European composite monarchies shows that it was a phenomenon shared by nearly every realm ruled by a monarchy. It demonstrates that the specific structures and institutions of composite monarchies developed over time according to regional requirements. Lastly, it establishes that a disparity between the laws of the various territories that made up a composite monarchy was a common characteristic.

Different people, different regional constitutions, different civil and electoral laws, and even different languages are still the norm in many of today’s members of the European community. An examination of early-modern composite monarchies may thus help us to address present-day challenges by contributing to the search for acceptable solutions and compromises.

By Charlotte Backerra


Charlotte Backerra

Charlotte Backerra is a postdoctoral researcher of early modern European history; she holds a position as lecturer at the University of Darmstadt (Germany), having previously taught at the universities of Mainz and Stuttgart. Her projects cover the role of dynasties in politics and culture, premodern international relations, and intelligence and espionage of European powers. Her doctoral thesis Wien und London. Internationale Beziehungen im frühen 18. Jahrhundert will be published with Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht in late 2018.

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Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian. “Sprache der Verwaltung, Sprache der Politik. Die politischen Sprachen in den Ländern des dänischen Königs 1536–1730.” In Politik und Sprache im Frühneuzeitlichen Europa, edited by Thomas Nicklas and Matthias Schnettger, 129–36. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2007 .

Ordi, Jaume et al. “The Severe Gout of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.” The New England Journal of Medicine 355 (2006): 516–20. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMon060780.

Pujol, Xavier Gil. “Visíon europea de la monarquía española como monarquía compuesta, siglos XVI y XVII.” In Las monarquías del Antiguo Régimen. ¿Monarquías compuestas?, edited by Conrad Russell and José Andrés-Gallego, 65–95. Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 1996.

Rabe, Horst, and Peter Marzahl. “‘Comme représentant nostre propre personne’ – Regentschaften und Regentschaftsordnungen Kaiser Karls V.” In Karl V. Politik und politisches System. Berichte und Studien aus der Arbeit an der Politischen Korrespondenz des Kaisers, edited by Horst Rabe, 71–94. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz, 1996.

Rauscher, Peter. “El gobierno de una ‘monarquía compuesta’. Fernando I y el nacimiento de la Monarquía de los Austrias en el centro de Europa.” In Fernando I, 1503–1564. Socialización, vida privada y actividad pública de un Emperador del Renacimiento, edited by Alfredo Alvar Ezquerra and Friedrich Edelmayer, 309–34. Madrid: Sociedad Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales, 2004.

Reynolds, Susan. “The Idea of the Nation as a Political Community.” In Power and the Nation in European History, edited by Len Scales and Oliver Zimmer, 54–66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

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Russell, Conrad. The Causes of the English Civil War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Rüther, Andreas. “Flüsse als Grenzen und Bindeglieder. Zur Wiederentdeckung des Raumes in der Geschichtswissenschaft.” Jahrbuch für Regionalgeschichte 25 (2007): 29–44.

Sarti, Cathleen. “Monarchenabsetzungen im frühneuzeitlichen Nordeuropa.” PhD diss., University of Mainz, 2017.

Scales, Len, and Oliver Zimmer, eds. Power and the Nation in European History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Schaich, Michael. “Introduction.” In The Hanoverian Succession. Dynastic Politics and Monarchical Culture, edited by Andreas Gestrich and Michael Schaich, 1–22. Farnham: Ashgate, 2015.

Schmidt, Peer. “Die Reiche der spanischen Krone. Konflikte um die Reichseinheit in der frühneuzeitlichen spanischen Monarchie.” In Zusammengesetzte Staatlichkeit in der Europäischen Verfassungsgeschichte. Tagung der Vereinigung für Verfassungsgeschichte in Hofgeismar vom 19.3.21.3.2001, edited by Hans-Jürgen Becker, 171–96. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2006.

Schnettger, Matthias. Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg, 1701–1713/14. München: C.H. Beck, 2014.

Schulze, Winfried. “Hausgesetzgebung und Verstaatlichung im Hause Österreich vom Tode Maximilians I. bis zur Pragmatischen Sanktion.” In Der dynastische Fürstenstaat: Zur Bedeutung von Sukzessionsordnungen für die Entstehung des frühmodernen Staates, edited by Johannes Kunisch, 253–71. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1982.

Strohmeyer, Arno. “‘Österreichische’ Geschichte der Neuzeit als multiperspektivische Raumgeschichte. Ein Versuch.” In Was heißt “österreichische” Geschichte? Probleme, Perspektiven und Räume der Neuzeit-Forschung, edited by Martin Scheutz and Arno Strohmeyer, 167–97. Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2008.

Turba, Gustav. Die Grundlagen der Pragmatischen Sanktion. Volume 2: Die Hausgesetze. Leipzig: Franz Deuticke, 1912.

Van der Lem, Anton. Opstand! Der Aufstand in den Niederlanden. Egmonts und Oraniens Opposition, die Gründung der Republik und der Weg zum Westfälischen Frieden. Berlin: Wagenbach, 1996.

Violi, Francesco. “Condominiums and Shared Sovereignty.” In 50 Shades of Federalism. http://50shadesoffederalism.com/theory/condominiums-shared-sovereignty/.

Virol, Michèle.Vauban. De la Gloire du Roi au Service de l’Etat. Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2003.

Wilson, Peter H. The Holy Roman Empire.A Thousand Years of Europe’s History. London: Penguin, 2017.

Wormald, Jenny. “The Creation of Britain. Multiple Kingdoms or Core and Colonies?” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 2 (1992): 175–94.

Related Chapters

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Trond Isaksen: A Useless Ceremony of Some Use: A Comparative Study of Attitudes to Coronations in Norway and Sweden in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (See Chapter 15)

Keywords

composite monarchy; personal union; real union; Europe; union of realms; actors; institutions; political culture; geography; coincidences; early modern

Chapter 7

Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy:
The Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire


With only one short interruption the Habsburgs managed to retain the royal or rather imperial dignity in the Holy Roman Empire from 1438 to the very end of the Empire, in 1806. This chapter aims to explain why this dynasty succeeded in preserving the imperial crown for a longer time than any other ruling house. The Habsburgs’ emperorship was shaped by several basic conditions. The different roles of the emperor – who was a member of one of the most eminent European dynasties and the ruler of an impressive accumulation of territories, too – interacted with each other in different ways.

Several aspects must be taken into consideration, when focusing specifically on the evolution of the emperorship: On the one hand, the development of the Empire’s constitution tended to limit the emperor’s position when the Empire’s estates gained notable influence. On the other hand, the emperor retained notable room for manoeuvre as supreme judge and feudal lord and as the source of a great variety of privileges. These enabled him to maintain his clients among the Empire’s estates. The early modern Empire is thus marked by the negotiation of the always precarious balance of Emperor and Empire (Kaiser und Reich).

By Matthias Schnettger


Matthias Schnettger

Matthias Schnettger is Professor of Early Modern History at the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz. His research interests embrace the Holy Roman Empire and small principalities and republics in Germany and Italy as well as diplomacy and processes of exchange in early modern Europe.

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Related Chapters

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Russell Martin: Anticipatory Association of the Heir in Early Modern Russia: Primogeniture and Succession in Russia’s Ruling Dynasties (See Chapter 25)

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Sarah Betts: What's in a name? Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016) (See Chapter 28)

Images

Gotthard Arthus:
Electio Et Coronatio Sereniss. Potentiss. Et Invictiss. Principis Et Dn. Dn. Matthiæ I. Electi Rom. Imperat. Semper Avgvsti Etc. Eivsq[ue] Sereniss. Conivgis Annæ Avstriacæ Etc. Tabvlis æneis Advmbrata = Wahl vndt Krönung Des aller durchleuchtigsten ... herrn Matthiæ I. erwehlten Römischen Kaysers etc. vndt Jhrer Kay. May. Gemahlin etc. in schönen kupferstuken abgebildet / ... Matt[hi]æ I. electo Rom Imperat. ... et illustriss.is Principibus et Dominis, S.R.I. Septemviris etc. hanc electionis et Coronationis delineationem, Carminice a Gotardo Arthusio Dantiscano decriptam, humiliter et devote dedicant, Iohannes-Theodorus de Bry, Iacobus de Zettra, Iohannes Gelle. (Frankfurt a.M.) : Bry 1612, Frontispiz.
© Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel

Chapter 8

Dei Gratia and the “Divine Right of Kings”:
Divine Legitimization or Human Humility?


The phrase Dei Gratia, or ‘by the Grace of God’, as part of a sovereign princes’ title, was once found widely across Europe. This chapter discusses the original meaning and significance of the phrase, as well as its use, and abuse, through history. It is shown that the phrase in its original context had quite a different meaning than the later idea of a ‘Divine Right’ of rulers. By understanding, and returning to its original meaning and implications, it emerges that the Deo Gratia phrase is in its essence not a legitimisation of unrestricted power given from God to a particular individual. It is not proclaiming Divine approval - but rather it is a warning and obligation, an emphasis on the monarch’s humility towards God as the source of authority. A better understanding of the original significance and implications of Deo Gratia helps understand why this phrase was, and still is, such a meaningful part of a ruler’s title – even, if not especially, in modern, democratic times.

By Matthias Range

Matthias Range

Matthias Range studied Art History and Musicology at the Philipps-Universität Marburg/Lahn (Germany), before gaining a D.Phil in Music at the University of Oxford, followed by a postdoctoral position in early-modern history at Oxford Brookes University. He currently works as a researcher at the University of Oxford. He has published widely in his main research areas: seventeenth to twentieth century sacred music and culture, and the history of the monarchy.

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Related Chapters

Manuela Santos Silva: Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme (See Chapter 5)

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Anna Duch: Chasing St. Louis: The English Monarchy's Pursuit of Sainthood [Link to Chapter 20]

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Russell Martin: Anticipatory Association of the Heir in Early Modern Russia: Primogeniture and Succession in Russia’s Ruling Dynasties (See Chapter 25)

Cathleen Sarti: Deposition of Monarchs in Northern Kingdoms, 1300-1700 (See Chapter 34)

Chapter 9

A Case-Study of Pre-Modern Islamic Monarchy:
The Almohad Caliphate of the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 12th–13th Centuries


Between the mid-twelfth and mid-thirteenth centuries, the Almohads politically unified the Maghreb region of North Africa from Tripolitania to the Atlantic under a single indigenous political authority for the first time in history. This case study will begin by presenting the political history of the Almohads and its context before discussing the specific nature of the Almohad political system, drawing on all the textual and material sources available. This will serve as a reference point to outline the rhetorical, ideological, and conceptual tools that were available to the Muslims of the Maghreb at that time. These tools retrospectively illuminate the exercise of power in the early centuries of Islam, a topic on which researchers do not agree. There are a wide variety of theories and hypotheses between those who maintain that Islam was born as a theocratic regime, where political power and religious authority were concentrated in the hands of a single man, and those who believe that the Islamic royalty that appeared in the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century distinguished immediately between the political aspect of caliphal power and the religious character of prophetic authority based on the influence of pre-Islamic models. This chapter illuminates these research questions through the discussed case study.

By Pascal Buresi


Pascal Buresi

Pascal Buresi is Research Professor at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CIHAM-UMR 5648, Lyon) and Professor at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (PSL, Paris). He is the author of several books including Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate (1224-1269) (Brill, 2012) and La Frontière entre chrétienté et Islam dans la péninsule ibérique (2004).

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Lévi-Provençal, Evariste, and Institut des hautes-études marocaines. Ibn Tumart et ’Abd al-Mu’min: le Faḳīh du Sūs et le Flambeau des Almohades. Paris: Librairie orientaliste P. Geuthner, 1928.

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Related Chapters

David Mednicoff: Contemporary Kingship in Muslim Arab Societies in Comparative Context (See Chapter 10

Eugénia Rodrigues: Negotiating with the Neighbours: Kingship and Diplomacy in Munhumutapa (See Chapter 16)

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Kim Bergqvist: Kings and Nobles on the Fringe of Christendom: A comparative perspective on Monarchy and Aristocracy in the European Middle Ages (See Chapter 37)

Chapter 10

Contemporary Kingship in Muslim Arab Societies in Comparative Context


Ruling monarchies have nearly disappeared as forms of actual governance in most regions of the contemporary world, with one notable exception. Kings who hold real power remain in Bahrain, Brunei, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Without advancing a quasi-teleological, orientalist, or essentialist cultural argument about Islam or Arab politics, can we make sense of how significant countries with common points of social meaning retain ruling monarchies? This chapter argues that kingship in contemporary Arab Muslim-majority countries has helped address specific post-colonial tensions around the official role of religion, a popular interest in steering a political path distinct from the formal institutional makeup of former colonial powers, and dilemmas of political continuity and change.

The chapter is divided into three sections. First, I discuss the basic history and post-independence adaption of contemporary Arab monarchy. Second, I look at the institutions and methods of legitimation that have allowed permutation of an “old-fashioned” ruling dynastic monarchy to endure, while paying attention to variation among different contemporary Arab royal regimes. Third, I reflect on what the endurance of Arab monarchies suggests for monarchies and more seemingly modern forms of government. If Arab kingship has endured largely through a combination of its help in resolving particular regional challenges around post-colonial political legitimacy and luck, the global significance of neo-traditional, status-based leadership retains some vitality.

By David Mednicoff


David Mednicoff

David Mednicoff (University of Massachusetts-Amherst, USA) researches and teaches on the intersection of law, politics and policy in the contemporary Middle East. Recent publications discuss post-2011 comparative Arab constitutional politics, the thick meanings of the rule of law in Arab Gulf states, the legal politics of migration regulation in Qatar and the UAE, and the legal and political ideology of Arab monarchies.

Bibliography

Periodicals and media sources consulted

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Le Matin du Sahara et du Maghreb (later simply « Le Matin »). Accessed online at https://lematin.ma/.

Tel Quel (Moroccan independent online magazine;). Accessed online at https://telquel.ma/.

Books

Ajami, Fouad. The Arab Predicament: Arab Political Thought since 1967. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Basri, Driss, Michel Rousset and Georges Vedel, editors. Trente Années de Vie Constitutionnelle au Maroc (Thirty Years of Constitutional Life in Morocco). Paris: Librarie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1993.

Beblawi, Hazem and Giocomo Luciani,editors. The Rentier State. London: Croom Helm, 1987.

Black, Anthony.  The History of Islamic Political Thought. 2nd edition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011.

Cook, Steven A. False Dawn: Protest, Democracy, and Violence in the New Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Daadaoui, Mohammed.  Moroccan Monarchy and the Islamist Challenge: Maintaining Makhzan Power. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005.

Dreyfuss, Robert. Devil’s Game: How the US Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam. New York: Metropolitan, Henry Holt, 2005.

Hallaq, Wael B.  The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law.  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Hallaq, Wael B.  Shari’a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison and John Jay. The Federalist with Letters of “Brutus.” Edited by Terence Ball. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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Humphreys, R. Stephen. Between Memory and Desire: the Middle East in a Troubled Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.

Huntington, Samuel. Political Order in Changing Societies. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968.

Kennedy, Hugh.  Caliphate: the History of an Idea. New York: Basic Books, 2016.

Laurent, Eric. Hassan II: La Mémoire d’un Roi. (“Hassan II: A King’s Memory”). Paris: Plon, 1993.

Masri, Safwan M. Tunisia: An Arab Anomaly. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.

Mednicoff, David. “The Politics of Sacred Paralysis: Constitutionalism in North Africa in the aftermath of 2011.” In Constitution-Writing, Religion and Democracy, edited by Asli Bali and Hanna Lerner. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Miller, Susan Gilson.  A History of Modern Morocco. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Moaddel, Mansoor, editor. Values and Perceptions of the Islamic and Middle Eastern Publics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

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Tessler, Mark. Public Opinion in the Middle East: Survey Research and the Political Orientations of Ordinary Citizens. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2011.

Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Edited by Talcott Parsons. New York: Free Press, 1964.

Weber, Max. Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society. Edited and translated by Tony and Dagmar Waters. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. The Muslim Brotherhood: Evolution of an Islamist Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013.

Worth, Robert F.  A Rage for Order. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016.

Zahlan, Rosemary Said. The Making of the Modern Gulf States. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989.

Related Chapters

Pascal Buresi: A Case-Study of Pre-Modern Islamic Monarchy: The Almohad Caliphate of the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 12th–13th Centuries (See Chapter 9)

David Malitz: The Nation as a Ritual Community: Royal Nation-Building in Imperial Japan and Post-War Thailand (See Chapter 13)

Sarah Betts: What's in a name? Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016) (See Chapter 28)

Chapter 11

Introduction to Ritual & Representation


In many respects, the role and function of monarchy, where it survives, for the twenty-first-century social media generation has changed significantly from its pre-modern roots. Moreover, the ritualised and representative means through which monarchy communicates to its variant publics has had to adapt and develop as the institution has risen, fallen and been resurrected. What was expected of pre-modern monarchs, for example, might appear a far cry from what modern audiences expect from the Windsors in the twenty-first century. Yet, similarities emerge over time and place, as the chapters in this section consider. One of these is the enduring need to provide a show for the ‘people’ – albeit that the show, audience and content are variable. Ritual and representation of monarchy was and is not an ‘empty display’ nor yet a light-hearted sideshow to political action. This introduction offers a brief outline of existing research in the area of monarchical ritual and representation, before exploring the twelve new case studies in the section which engage with the intricacies of the constant process of reinvention, renewal, and realignment of monarchy through a multitude of media and ritual forms across geographies and chronologies. To avoid adherence to strict chronological progression and geographical groupings, these chapters are arranged, as much as is possible, to reveal the fluidity and continuities through time and space. Herein ritual and representation are interlocked and organically connected: from religious and pious ritual, via rituals of national identity, travel and diplomacy, perceptions of monarchy, use of rhetoric, the treatment of royal bodies, to the material representations of monarchy.

By Lucinda Dean


Lucinda Dean

Dr Lucy Dean is lecturer at the Centre for History at the University of the Highlands and Islands (since November 2016) and is a specialist in late medieval and early modern ritual and ceremony of the Scottish monarchy with a keen interest in material culture. She is currently in the final throws of revising her AHRC-funded doctoral research for a monograph: Death and the Royal Succession: Scottish Funerals, Coronations and Weddings, c.1214–1543 (in preparation for St Andrews Scottish History Series, Boydell and Brewer). She has published a number of articles and book chapters on connected themes, and co-edited a volume on Medieval and Early Modern Representations of Authority in Scotland and the British Isles (Routledge, 2016). She is always looking for meaningful ways of engaging the public with history, and Scottish history particularly, working currently and previously with bodies such as Historic Environment Scotland (HES), Royal Collections Trust (Holyrood), and Culture Perth and Kinross. This includes a research commission for HES on the royal honours of Scotland, and she is currently a co-investigator on the Perth Charterhouse Project. Her new research explores manhood, masculinity and coming of age of the later Stewart kings, with a case study of James V as forerunner to a wider comparative analysis project, and she is working to publish research on baptism in the late medieval and early modern eras (with a particular interest in the role and choice of godparents).

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Bak, Janos, ed. Coronations: Medieval and Early Modern Monarchic Ritual. Berkley: University of California Press, 1990.

Berg, Maxine with Felicia Gottman, Hanna Hodacs and Chris Nierstrasz, eds. Goods from the East, 1600–1800: Trading Eurasia. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2015.

Bergeron, David M. English Civic Pageantry, 1558–1642. London: Edward Arnold, 1971.

Binski, Paul Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets: Kingship and the Representation of Power, 1200–1400. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1995.

Brown, Andrew. Civic Ceremony and Religion in Medieval Bruges, c. 1300–1520. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Buc, Philippe. The Dangers of Ritual: Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.

Burden, Joel F. “Rituals of Royalty: Prescription, Politics and Practice in English Coronation and Royal Funeral Rituals c. 1327 to c. 1485.” PhD Diss, University of York, 1999.

Burke, Peter. Fabrication of Louis XIV. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.

Cannadine, David. “The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the ‘Invention of Tradition’, c. 1820–1977.” In The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, 101-164. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Carvalhal, Hélder and Isabel dos Guimarães Sá. “Knightly Masculinity, Court Games and Material Culture in Late-medieval Portugal: The Case of Constable Afonso (c.1480-1504).” Gender and History 28, no. 2 (August 2016): 387–400.

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Dean, Lucinda H.S. “Crowns, Wedding Rings and Processions: Continuity and Change in the Representations of Royal Authority in State Ceremony” PhD Dissertation, University of Stirling, 2013: http://hdl.handle.net/1893/20198 

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Bruce.” International Review of Scottish Studies 40 (Sept 2015): 34–60.

Fletcher, Christopher. “Manhood and Politics in the Reign of Richard II.” Past and Present 189 (2005): 3–39.

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Flynn, Dennis O., and Arturo Giráldez. China and the Birth of Globalization in the Sixteenth Century. Farnham: Ashgate, 2010.

Giesey, Ralph. The Royal Funeral Ceremony in Renaissance France. Genève: Librairie a Droz, 1960.

Gunn, Geoffrey C. First Globalization: the Eurasian Exchange, 1500 to 1800. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003.

Hobsbawm, Eric. “Introduction: Inventing Tradition.” In The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, 1-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

Levitt, Emma. “The Construction of High Status Masculinity through the Tournament and Martial Activity in the Later Middle Ages.”PhD Dissertation, University of Huddersfield, 2016.

Lewis, Katherine J. Kingship and Masculinity in Late Medieval England. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013.

MacGlynn, Sean and Elena Woodacre, ed. The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholar Publishers, 2010.

Mulryne, J.R. Helen Watanabe-O'Kelly and Margaret Shewring eds. Europa Triumphans: Court and Civic Festivals in Early Modern Europe. Aldershot and Burlington VT: Ashgate, 2004.

Mulryne, J.R. and Maria Ines Aliverti with Maria Anna Testaverde, eds. Ceremonial Entries in Early Modern Europe: The Iconography of Power. Farnham: Ashgate, 2015.

Mulryne, J.R., Krista De Jonge, Pieter Martins, and Richard L.M. Morris, eds. Architectures of Festival in Early Modern Europe: Fashioning and Re-fashioning Urban and Courtly Space. Abingdon: Routledge, 2017.

Ormrod, W. Mark. “Monarchy, martyrdom and masculinity: England in the Later Middle Ages. “In Holiness and Masculinity in the Middle Ages, ed. Patricia H. Cullum and Katherine J. Lewis, 174-191. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2004.

Paranque, Estelle. “The Representations and Ambiguities of the Warlike Kingship of Elizabeth I.” In Medieval and Early Modern Representations of Authority in Scotland and the British Isles, edited by Katherine Buchanan and Lucinda H.S. Dean, with Michael Penman, 163-176. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.

Parker, Charles. Global Interactions in the Early Modern Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Penman, Michael. Robert the Bruce: King of the Scots. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.

Penman, Michael. “Who is this King of Glory? Robert I and the Consecration of St Andrews Cathedral, 5 July 1318.” In Medieval and Early Modern Representations of Authority in Scotland and the British Isles, edited by Katherine Buchanan and Lucinda H.S. Dean, with Michael Penman, 85-104. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.

Richardson, Glenn. “Boys and their Toys: Kingship, Masculinity and Material Culture in the Sixteenth Century.” In The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, edited by Sean MacGlynn and Elena Woodacre, 183-206. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholar Publishers, 2010.

Seidler, Victor J. Remembering Diana: Cultural Memory and the Reinvention of Authority. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

Sharpe, Kevin. Selling the Tudor Monarchy: Authority and Image in Sixteenth-Century England. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.

Sharpe, Kevin. Image Wars: Promoting Kings and Commonwealth in England, 1603–1660. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.

Sharpe, Kevin. Rebranding Rule: The Restoration and Revolution of Monarchy, 1660–1714. London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.

Simpson, Grant G. “The Heart of King Robert I: Pious Crusade or Marketing Gambit?” In Church, Chronicle and Learning in Medieval and Early Renaissance Scotland: Essay presented to Donald Watt on the Occasion of the Completion of the Publication of Bower’s Scotichronicon, edited by Barbara E. Crawford, 172-186. Edinburgh: Mercat Press, 1999.

Strong, Roy. The English Icon: Elizabethan & Jacobean Portraiture. London: Routledge and Kegan, 1969.

Strong, Roy. Art and Power, Renaissance Festivals 1450–1650. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1984.

Strong, Roy. Coronation: A History of Kingship and the British Monarchy. London: Harper Collins, 2005.

Tanner. Roland, “Cowing the Community? Coercion and Falsification in Robert Bruce’s Parliaments.” In Parliaments and Politics in Scotland, Vol. I: 1235–1560, edited by Keith Brown and Roland Tanner, 50-73. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2004.

Waterstone, Jim. “Royal Wedding confirmed as year’s biggest UK TV event.” The Guardian, 20 May 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/may/20/royal-wedding-confirmed-as-years-biggest-uk-tv-event.

Watson, Fiona. “The Enigmatic Lion: Scotland, Kingship and National Identity in the Wars of Independence.” In Image and Identity: the Making and Re-Making of Scotland Through the Ages, edited by Dauvit Broun, R.J. Finlay and Michael Lynch, 18-37. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1999.

Whitelock, Anna. “Woman, Warrior, Queen?” In Tudor Queenship: the Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, edited by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock, 173-189. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2010.

Web Resources

BBC. “Royal Wedding Live Coverage.” 19 May 2018.

“Over 29 million viewers watch Prince Harry and Meghan Markle’s royal wedding.” Nielsen Company. 20 May 2018. http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2018/over-29-million-viewers-watch-prince-harry-and-meghan-markles-wedding.html.

Related Chapters

Elena Woodacre: Understanding the Mechanisms of Monarchy (See Chapter 1)

Chris Jones: Introduction (See Chapter 2)

Russell Martin: Introduction (See Chapter 24)

Zita Rohr: Introduction (See Chapter 35)

Chapter 12

Faith, Power and Charity:
Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England


This chapter argues that whilst religion occupies a central place in historical writing on European monarchies, the personal religion of England’s kings is often accorded limited attention. Yet, between the Norman Conquest and the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the kings of England and their consorts engaged with the religious trends of their day: building monasteries, giving alms to the poor, endowing masses, chaplains and chapels so that prayers for their souls could be performed. They maintained the infrastructure of personal religion at court and commissioned high-status manuscripts for use in devotional activity. In going on pilgrimage and making gifts to churches they visited, rulers made, on the one hand, an ostentatious demonstration of apparent humility, whilst asserting their wealth and a claim to the reciprocal prayers of the religious (and hoped for intercession of the saints). Meanwhile, in founding and giving building materials to a range of churches, they made (or contributed) to permanent statements of power in the landscape. Their web of religious activity extended across the realm, whilst at Westminster, fast emerging as the heart of royal power, the king’s religious activity linked personal devotion to the concept of a dynastic coronation and burial church central to the power of a dynasty.

By Paul Webster


Paul Webster

Paul Webster received his Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 2007. He now works at Cardiff University, where he co-ordinates the Exploring the Past adult learners progression pathway to degrees in the School of History, Archaeology and Religion. His research focuses on kingship and piety in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and his principal publications include monographs on King John and Religion (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2015) and a collection, co-edited with Dr Marie-Pierre Gelin (UCL) on The Cult of St Thomas Becket in the Plantagenet World (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2016).

Annotated Bibliography

1. On the Capetian kings of France and the royal abbey of Saint-Denis:

  • Autrand, Françoise, Claude Gauvard, and Jean-Marie Moeglin, Saint-Denis et la royauté: études offertes à Bernard Guenée. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999.
  • Beaune, Colette, The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Late Medieval France. Trans. by Susan Ross Huston, ed. by Frederic L. Cheyette. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
  • Grant, Lindy, Abbot Suger of St-Denis: Church and State in Early Twelfth Century France. London and New York: Longman, 1998.
  • Koziol, Geoffrey, “England, France, and the Problem of Sacrality in Twelfth-Century Ritual.” In Cultures of Power, edited by Thomas Bisson, 124-48. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
  • Spiegel, Gabrielle M, “The Cult of Saint Denis and Capetian Kingship.” Journal of Medieval History 1 (1975): 43-70.

2. On religion and kingship in the reign of King Louis IX of France (r. 1226-70):

  • Billot, Claudine, “Le message spirituel et politique de la Sainte-Chapelle de Paris.” Revue Mabillon 63 (1992): 119-41.
  • Branner, Robert, Saint Louis and the Court Style in Gothic Architecture. London: A. Zwemmer, 1965.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Louis IX and Liturgical Memory.” In Memory and Commemoration in Medieval Culture, edited by Elma Brenner, Meredith Cohen and Mary Franklin-Brown, 261-76. Farnham: Ashgate, 2013.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “The Place of the Crusades in the Sanctification of St Louis.” In Crusades: Medieval Worlds in Conflict, edited by Thomas Madden, James L. Naus, and Vincent Ryan, 195-209. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.
  • Kaufmann, Martin, “The Image of St Louis.” In Kings and Kingship in Medieval Europe, edited by Anne J. Duggan, 265-86. London: King’s College London, Centre for Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 1993.
  • See also below, (5a) On the Crusades of the Capetian kings of France.

3. On religion and royal power under King Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314):

  • Brown, Elizabeth, The Monarchy of Capetian France and Royal Ceremonial. Aldershot: Variorum, 1991.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Boniface VIII, Philip the Fair, and the Sanctity of Louis IX.” Journal of Medieval History 29 (2003): 1-26.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth, “Philip the Fair and the Cult of St Louis.” In Religion and National Identity, edited by Stuart Mews, Studies in Church History 18 (1982): 201-14.

4. On the Castilian royal family and the abbey of Las Huelgas at Burgos:

  • Alonso Álvarez, Raquel, “La memoria de Alfonso VIII de Castilla en las Huelgas de Burgos: arquitectura y liturgia funeraria.” In 1212, un año, un reinado, un tiempo de despegue: XXIII Semana de Estudios Medievales, Nájera, del 30 de julio al 3 de agosto de 2012, edited by. Esther López Ojeda, 349-76. Logroño: Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 2013.
  • Walker, Rose, “Leonor of England, Plantagenet Queen of King Alfonso VIII of Castile, and her Foundation of the Cistercian Abbey of Las Huelgas. In Imitation of Fontevraud?” Journal of Medieval History 31 (2005): 346-68.
  • Yarza Luaces, Joaquín, and Matteo Mancini (eds), Vestiduras ricas: El Monasterio de Las Huelgas y su época, 1170-1340. Madrid: Patrimonio Nacional, 2005.

5. On crusading, the religious military orders, and European rulers:
(a) France:

  • Berry, Virginia Gingerick, trans. Odo of Deuil, De Profectione Ludovici VII in orientem: The Journey of Louis VII to the East. New York: W. W. Norton, 1965.
  • Bradbury, Jim, Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. Harlow: Longman, 1998. Chapter 3.
  • Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, “Louis IX, Crusade, and the Promise of Joshua in the Holy Land.” Journal of Medieval History 34 (2009): 245-74.
  • Graboïs, Aryeh, “The Crusade of King Louis VII: A Reconsideration.” In Crusade and Settlement, edited by Peter W. Edbury, 94-104. Cardiff: University College Cardiff Press, 1985.
  • Jordan, William Chester, Louis IX and the Challenge of the Crusade. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.
  • Naus, James, Constructing Kingship: The Capetian Monarchs of France and the Early Crusades. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2016.
  • Shaw, Margaret Renée Bryers, trans. Joinville and Villehardouin: Chronicles of the Crusades. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1963.

(b) Germany:

  • Abulafia, David, Frederick II. London: Pimlico, 1988. Chapter 5.
  • Hiestand, Rudolf, “Kingship and Crusade in Twelfth-Century Germany.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 235-65. London and Oxford: The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Loud, Graham A., trans. The Crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick and Related Texts. Farnham: Ashgate, 2010.

(c) Iberia:

  • Barquero Goñi, Carlos, “The Hospitallers and the Kings of Navarre in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 349-54. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Edwards, John, “Reconquista and Crusade in Fifteenth-Century Spain.” In Crusading in the Fifteenth Century, edited by Norman Housley, 163-81, 235-7. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  • Fletcher, Richard A, “Reconquest and Crusade in Spain, c. 1050-1150.” In Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, series 5, 37 (1987): 31-47.
  • Gómez, Miguel, “Las Navas de Tolosa and the Culture of Crusade in the Kingdom of Castile.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 4 (2012): 53-7.
  • Rodríguez García, José Manuel, “Alfonso X and the Teutonic Order: An Example of the Role of the International Military Orders in Mid Thirteenth-Century Castile.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 319-27. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Vann, Theresa M, “‘Our father has won a great victory’: The Authorship of Berenguela’s Account of the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.” In Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 3 (2011): 79-92.

6. On European kings, the response to heresy, and the Trial of the Templars:

  • Barber, Malcolm. “The Trial of the Templars Revisited.” In The Military Orders Volume 2: Welfare and Warfare, edited by Helen Nicholson, 329-42. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998.
  • Burgtorf, Jochen, Paul Crawford and Helen Nicholson (eds), The Debate on the Trial of the Templars (1307-1314). Farnham: Ashgate, 2010.
  • Forey, Alan, The Fall of the Templars in the Crown of Aragon. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001.
  • Given, James, “Chasing Phantoms: Philip IV and the Fantastic.” In Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages, edited by Michael Frassetto, 271-89. Leiden: Brill, 2006.
  • Théry, Julien, “Une hérésie d’état, Philippe le Bel, le procès des ‘perfides Templiers’, et la pontificalisation de la royauté française.” In Médiévales 60 (2011): 157-85.

7. On European rulers and their relationship with the Jewish community:

  • Abulafia, David, “The King and the Jews.” In The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages, edited by Christoph Cluse, 43-54. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004.
  • Brown, Elizabeth, “Philip V, Charles IV, and the Jews of France: The Alleged Explusion of 1322.” In Speculum 66 (1991): 294-329.
  • Burns, Robert I, “Jaume I and the Jews of the Kingdom of Valencia.” In Jaime I y su época, 245-322. Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico, 1980.
  • Dejoux, Marie, “Gouvernement et pénitence. Les enquêtes de réparation des usures juives de Louis IX (1247-1270).” In Annales 69 (2014): 849-74.
  • Iancu, Danièle and Elie Nicholas (eds), Philippe le Bel et les juifs du royaume de France (1306). Paris : Éditions du Cerf, 2012.
  • Jordan, William Chester, The French Monarchy and the Jews. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989.
  • Jordan, William Chester, Ideology and Royal Power in Medieval France: Kingship, Crusades and the Jews. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001.
  • Lower, Michael, “Conversion and St Louis’s Last Crusade.” In Journal of Ecclesiastical History 58 (2007): 211-31.
  • Patschovsky, Alexander, “The Relationship between the Jews of Germany and the King (11th-14th Centuries): A European Comparison.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 193-218. London and Oxford: The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Tolan, John, “Royal Policy and Conversion of Jews to Christianity in Thirteenth-Century Europe.” In Contesting Inter-Religious Conversion in the Medieval World, edited by Yaniv Fox and Yosi Yisraeli, 96-111. London and New York: Routledge, 2017.

8. On the ‘royal touch’ in medieval England and France:

  • Barlow, Frank. “The King’s Evil.” In English Historical Review 95 (1980): 3-27.
  • Brogan, Stephen, The Royal Touch in Early Modern England: Politics, Medicine and Sin. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2015.
  • Buc, Philippe. “David’s Adultery with Bathsheba and the Healing Power of the Capetian Kings.” In Viator 24 (1993): 101-20.
  • Huntington, Joanna. “Saintly Power as a Model of Royal Authority: The “Royal Touch” and Other Miracles in the Early Vitae of Edward the Confessor.” In Aspects of Power and Authority in the Middle Ages, edited by Brenda Bolton and Christine Meek, 327-43. Turnhout: Brepols, 2007.

9. Comparisons of the rulers of England with those of France:

  • Binski, Paul, Westminster Abbey and the Plantagenets. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995.
  • Branner, Robert, “Westminster Abbey and the French Court Style.” In Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 23 (1964): 3-18.
  • Gouttebroze, Jean-Guy, “Deux modèles de sainteté royale: Edouard le Confesseur et saint Louis.” In Cahiers de Civilization Médiévale 42 (1999): 242-58.
  • Jordan, William Chester, A Tale of Two Monasteries: Westminster and Saint-Denis in the Thirteenth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  • Phillips, Katie, “The Leper and the King: The Patronage and Perception of Lepers and Leprosy by King Henry III of England and King Louis IX of France.” PhD diss., University of Reading, 2018.
  • Vincent, Nicholas, The Holy Blood: King Henry III and the Westminster Blood Relic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

10. Works by Elizabeth Hallam on royal religious patronage:

  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Henry II, Richard I and the Order of Grandmont.” In Journal of Medieval History 1 (1975): 165-86.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Henry II as a Founder of Monasteries.” In Journal of Ecclesiastical History 28 (1977): 113-32.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Royal Burial and the Cult of Kingship in England and France, 1060-1330.” In Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982): 359-80.
  • Hallam, Elizabeth. “Monasteries as “War Memorials”: Battle Abbey and La Victoire.” In The Church and War, edited by William J. Shiels, Studies in Church History 20 (1983): 46-57.

11. Works by Michael Penman on the devotional activity of the kings of the Scots:

  • Penman, Michael. “Christian Days and Knights: The Religious Devotions and Court of David II of Scotland, 1329-71.” In Historical Research 75 (2002): 249-72.
  • Penman, Michael. “The Bruce Dynasty, Becket, and Scottish Pilgrimage to Canterbury, c.1178-c.1404.” In Journal of Medieval History 32 (2006): 346-70.
  • Penman, Michael. ““Sacred Food for the Soul”: In Search of the Devotions to Saints of Robert Bruce, King of Scotland 1306-1329.” In Speculum 88 (2013): 1035-62.

12. On the rulers of England and the Jewish community:

  • Brand, Paul, “Jews and the Law in England, 1275-90.” In English Historical Review 115 (2000), 1138-1158.
  • Brand, Paul, “New Light on the Expulsion of the Jewish Community from England in 1290.” In Reading Medieval Studies 40 (2014), 101-16.
  • Carpenter, David, “Crucifixion and Conversion: King Henry III and the Jews in 1255.” In Laws, Lawyers and Texts: Studies in Medieval Legal History in Honour of Paul Brand, edited by Susanne Jenks, Jonathan Rose and Christopher Whittick, 130-48. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
  • Fogle, Lauren, “The Domus Conversorum: The Personal Interest of Henry III.” In Jewish Historical Studies 41 (2007), 1-7.
  • Hyams, Paul R., “The Jews in Medieval England, 1066-1290.” In England and Germany in the High Middle Ages, edited by Alfred Haverkamp and Hanna Vollrath, 174-92. London and Oxford, The German Historical Institute and Oxford University Press, 1996.
  • Menache, Sophia, “The King, the Church and the Jews: Some Considerations on the Expulsions from England and France.” In Journal of Medieval History 13 (1987), 223-36.
  • Rees Jones, Sarah, and Sethina Watson (eds), Christians and Jews in Angevin England: The York Massacre of 1190, Narratives and Contexts. York: York Medieval Press, 2013.
  • Richardson, Henry Gerald, The English Jewry Under Angevin Kings. London: Methuen, 1960.
  • Skinner, Patricia (ed.), The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary and Archaeological Perspectives. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2003.
  • Stacey, Robert C, “Parliamentary Negotiation and the Expulsion of the Jews from England.” In Thirteenth Century England VI, edited by Michael Prestwich, Richard H. Britnell and Robin Frame, 77-101. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1997.
  • Streit, Kevin, “The Expansion of the English Jewish Community in the Reign of King Stephen.” In Albion 25 (1993), 177-92.
  • Tolan, John, “The First Imposition of a Badge on European Jews: The English Royal Mandate of 1218.” In The Character of Christian-Muslim Encounter, edited by Douglas Pratt, Jon Hoover, John Davies, and John Chesworth, 145-66. Leiden: Brill, 2015.
  • Tolan, John, “Les juifs du roi: conflit et coexistence dans l’Angleterre d’Henri III (1216-1272).” In Conditioned Identities: Wished-For and Unwished-For Identities, edited by Flocel Sabaté, 49-70. Bern: Peter Lang, 2015.

Bibliography

Manuscripts

Cambridge Cambridge University Library Ms. Ee.3.59
London British Library Additional Ms. 18850
Additional Ms. 24686
Additional Ms. 57950
Royal Ms. 2 B VII
Royal Ms. 1 E IX
Royal Ms. 15 E I
London Lambeth Palace Ms. 474
London The National Archives E101 (Exchequer Accounts Various)
E101/349/30
E 101/411/9
E361 (Exchequer: Pipe Office: Enrolled Wardrobe and Household Accounts)
E373 (Exchequer: Pipe Office: Pipe Rolls)
E403 (Exchequer of Receipt: Issue Rolls and Registers)
E404 (Exchequer of Receipt: Warrants for Issues)
London The National Gallery NG4451
Munich Bayerische Staatsbibliothek cod. gall. 16
Oxford Bodleian Library Ms. Douce 180

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Farris, Charles. “The Pious Practices of Edward I, 1272-1307.” PhD diss, Royal Holloway College, University of London, 2013.

Fletcher, Richard A. “Reconquest and Crusade in Spain, c. 1050-1150.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society series 5, 37 (1987): 31-47.

Fogle, Lauren. “The Domus Conversorum: The Personal Interest of Henry III.” Jewish Historical Studies 41 (2007): 1-7.

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Online Resources

“Richard II’s Treasure: The Riches of A Medieval King.”Accessed 27 April 2017. https://www.history.ac.uk/richardII/index.html.

Reading and viewing lists

  • Bent, Ian. “The English Chapel Royal before 1300.” Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 90 (1963-64): 77-95.
  • Dixon-Smith, Sally. “The Image and Reality of Alms-Giving in the Great Halls of Henry III.” Journal of the British Archaeological Association 152 (1999): 79-96.
  • Gameson, Richard. “The Earliest English Royal Books.” In 1000 Years of Royal Books and Manuscripts, edited by Kathleen Doyle and Scot McKendrick, 3-35. London: British Library, 2013.
  • Gordon, Dillian, Lisa Monnas and Caroline Elam, eds. The Regal Image of Richard II and the Wilton Diptych. London: Harvey Miller, 1997.
  • Green, Judith. “The Piety and Patronage of Henry I.” Haskins Society Journal 10 (2001): 1-16.
  • Koziol, Geoffrey. “England, France, and the Problem of Sacrality in Twelfth-Century Ritual.” In Cultures of Power, edited by Thomas Bisson, 124-48. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995.
  • McKendrick, Scot, John Lowden and Kathleen Doyle, eds., with Joanna Frońska and Deirdre Jackson. Royal Manuscripts: The Genius of Illumination. London: British Library, 2011.
  • Ormrod, W. Mark. “The Personal Religion of Edward III.” Speculum 64 (1989): 849-77.
  • Prestwich, Michael. “The Piety of Edward I.” In England in the Thirteenth Century, edited by W. Mark Ormrod, 120-28. Grantham: Harlaxton College, 1985.
  • Vale, Malcolm. Henry V: The Conscience of a King. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2016.
  • Vincent, Nicholas. “The Pilgrimages of the Angevin Kings of England 1154-1272.” In Pilgrimage: The English Experience from Becket to Bunyan, edited by Colin Morris and Peter Roberts, 12-45. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  • Webster, Paul. King John and Religion. Woodbridge: Boydell, 2015.

Keywords

Aachen; Aethelberht I, king of Kent (d. c. 616); Aethelstan, king of England (d. 939); Agincourt, battle of (1415); Alfonso VI, king of Castile-Léon (r. 1072-1109); Alfonso VIII, king of Castile (r. 1157-1214); Alfred, king of England (r. 871-899); Alphonso Psalter; Anne of Bohemia, queen of England (d. 1394); Anne of Burgundy, duchess of Bedford (alive 1404-1432); Bamberg; Beaulieu Abbey (Hampshire); Bedford Hours; Benedictine order; Bertha, Frankish princess, queen of Kent (d. c. 601); Bloch, Marc; Bolingbroke, Henry – see Henry IV, king of England; Canossa; Carthusian order; Celestine order; Charlemage, king of the Franks (r. 768-814), king of the Lombards (r. 774-814), emperor (r. 800-814), canonised 1165; Charles the Bald, king of the Franks (r. 840-877), emperor (r. 875-877); Cistercian order; Concordat of Worms (1122); Conrad III, emperor (r. 1138-1152); Devotional texts; Dissolution of the Monasteries; Dominican order of friars; Douce Apocalypse; Edgar, king of England (d. 975); Edmund, King and Martyr (d. 869, venerated as a saint); Edward the Confessor, king of England (r. 1042-1066, canonised 1161); Edward I, king of England (r. 1274-1307); Edward II, king of England (r. 1307-1327); Edward III, king of England (r. 1327-1377); Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of England, duchess of Aquitaine (d. 1204); Eleanor of Castile, queen of England (alive 1241-1290); Eleanor of Provence, queen of England (alive c.1223-1291); Eleanor, queen of Castile (r. 1174-1214); The Empire; Frederick I, Barbarossa, emperor (r. 1152-1190); Frederick II, emperor (r. 1215-1250); Gandersheim nunnery; George II, king of Great Britain and Ireland (r. 1714-1760); Gregory VII, pope (r. 1073-1085); Hallam, Elizabeth; Henry I, king of England (r. 1100-1135); Henry II, emperor (d. 1024, canonised 1146); Henry III, emperor (r. 1039-1056); Henry IV, emperor (r. 1056-1105/6); Henry II, king of England (r. 1154-1189); Henry III, king of England (r. 1216-1272); Henry IV, king of England (r. 1399-1413); Henry V, king of England (r. 1413-1422); Henry VI, king of England (r. 1422-1461 and 1470-1471); Henry VII, king of England (r. 1485-1509); Henry the Young King (d. 1183); Isabella (d. 1241), daughter of King John of England, sister of King Henry III of England, third wife of Emperor Frederick II; Isabella of France, queen of England (alive 1295-1358); Isabella of Brienne (1212-1228), queen of Jerusalem, first wife of Emperor Frederick II; James I, king of Aragon (r. 1213-1276); John, duke of Bedford (alive 1389-1435); John, king of England (r. 1199-1216); Kantorowicz, Ernst; Kingdom of Aragon; Kingdom of Castile;

Kingdom of Castile-Léon; Kingdom of England; Kingdom of France; Kingdom of the Scots; Kunigunde, empress (d. 1040, canonised 1200); Las Huelgas Abbey, Burgos; Laudes Regiae; Liege; Lollardy; Louis VI, king of France (r. 1108-1137); Louis VII, king of France (r. 1137-1180); Louis VIII, king of France (r. 1223-1226); Louis IX (St Louis), king of France (r. 1226-1270); Magdeburg Abbey; The Magi; Mary, the Virgin; Norman Conquest; Otto I, king of East Francia (r. 936-973), king of Italy (r. 951-973), and emperor (r. 962-973); Personal Religion; Philip II, king of France (r. 1180-1223); Philip IV, king of France (r. 1285-1314); Philip VI, king of France (r. 1328-1350); Quedlinburg nunnery; Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (r. 1194-1222); Reading Abbey; Regularis Concordia; Richard, earl of Cornwall, king of the Romans (r. 1257-1272); Richard I, king of England (r. 1189-1199); Richard II, king of England (r. 1377-1399); Richard III, king of England (r. 1483-1485); Robert II, ‘the Pious’, king of the Franks (r. 987-1031); Robert Curthose (alive c. 1050-1134), duke of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror; Rouen Cathedral; Royal household; Rudolf I of Habsburg, king of the Romans (r. 1273-1291); Saint-Denis Abbey; Sainte-Chapelle; St Denis; St Edmund – see above, Edmund King and Martyr; St Edward the Confessor – see above, Edward the Confessor; St John the Baptist; St Louis – see above, Louis IX; St Rémi; St Peter’s Abbey, Gloucester; St Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster; Sheen Abbey; Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester (alive c.1208-1265); Speyer Cathedral; Stephen, king of England (r. 1135-1154); Suger, abbot of Saint-Denis (abbot 1122-51); Treasure Roll; Vale, Malcolm; Vale Royal Abbey (Cheshire); Wales; Westminster Abbey; William the Conqueror, king of England (r. 1066-1087); William of Poitiers, royal chaplain; Wilton Diptych

Related Chapters

Matthias Range: Dei Gratia and the “Divine Right of Kings”: Divine Legitimization or Human Humility? (See Chapter 8)

Anna Duch: Chasing St. Louis: The English Monarchy's Pursuit of Sainthood (See Chapter 20)

Chapter 13

The Nation as a Ritual Community:
Royal Nation-Building in Imperial Japan and Post-War Thailand


Employing Meiji Japan and post-war Thailand as examples and drawing on ritual and cognitive studies, this chapter argues that monarchies can be uniquely powerful institutions for nation-building. The unavoidable social inequalities and regional or cultural differences of the populations of nation-states are at odds with the idea of a cultural homogeneous nation consisting of members of a more or less equal status. These contradictions were arguably particularly acute in late nineteenth century Japan and post-war Thailand, when country-wide nation-building projects were undertaken, and where these projects meant the introduction of foreign practices and institutions. It is argued that as a ritual institution and multifaceted symbol, and through repetitive ritual performances, the monarchies served to reconcile the the contradictions inherent in nation-building, standing simultaneously for authentic and modern nations, for homogeneous as well as for regionally diverse and socially stratified nations.

By David Malitz


David Malitz

David Malitz received his PhD in Japanese Studies from Ludwig-Maximilians University in Munich. He is currently teaching at an international program at the Faculty of Arts of Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok. He is interested in modern Japanese and Thai history.

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Keywords

Names not in bold are only mentioned once or are of lesser importance than those in bold.

Aizawa Seishisai; King Ananda; Walter Bagehot; Arthur J. Balfour (First Earl of Balfour); Bangkok; King Bhumipol; Chiang Mai; King Chulalongkorn; Prince Dhani Nivat; Fukuzawa Yukichi; Isan, Japan; Charles Keyes; Kyoto; Emperor Meiji; nation-building; Okubo Toshimichi; Ozawa Masachi;  Phibun Songkhram; King Prajadhipok; Pridi Banomyong; Ritual; Queen Saovabha;  Sarit Thanarat; Siam; Prince Subha Svasti; symbol; Thailand; Thanom Kittikachorn; Tokyo; Wichit Wathakan; King Vajiravudh

Related Chapters

Charlotte Backerra: Personal Union, Composite Monarchy, and “Multiple Rule” (See Chapter 6)

David Mednicoff: Contemporary Kingship in Muslim Arab Societies in Comparative Context (See Chapter 10)

Christoph de Spiegeleer: The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow: Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century (See Chapter 14)

Susan Broomhall: Ruling Emotions: Affective and emotional strategies of power and authority among early modern European monarchies (See Chapter 40)

Frank Jacob: Queen Min, Foreign Policy, and the Role of Female Leadership in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea (See Chapter 42)

Chapter 14

The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow:
Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century


Royal funerals in the second half of the nineteenth century were ceremonies through which the nationalisation of Western-European monarchies could be carried out in the public sphere. They can be analysed as mediatised ‘cultural performances’. Deaths of nineteenth-century heads of state could create unique moments of emotional connection between nation and dynasty, but these great deaths could also expose the lack of shared values and serve to break whatever fragile consensus existed. This chapter explores how the nationalisation and mediatisation of royal lives and rituals manifested themselves in the responses to the deaths and the organisation of the funerals of Leopold I of Belgium (1865), Vittorio Emanuele II of Italy (1878) and German Emperor Wilhelm I (1888). The funeral ceremonies in Brussels and Rome were ‘(re)invented traditions’ which combined old ritual and symbolic practices with new symbols and rituals to stimulate a feeling of national unity and (artificial) historical continuity. The role of Wilhelm’s funeral in the public nationalisation of the monarchy in Berlin proved to be less straightforward. The public Belgian responses to the death of Leopold I succeeded most in sustaining the coherence of the nation. On the other hand, the deaths of Vittorio Emanuele II and Wilhelm I mobilised hostile feelings of certain social and political groups towards the Kingdom of Italy and the German Empire.

By Christoph De Spiegeleer


Christoph De Spiegeleer

Christoph De Spiegeleer received his PhD in modern history from the Vije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium. He is currently active as Research Fellow of Liberas/Liberaal Archief in Ghent. His research interests relate to the history of the Belgian monarchy and modern funerary culture, with a particular focus on the connections between these subjects and political culture and national identity on a European level. His work on the Belgian monarchy, liberalism, socialism and funerary culture has appeared in journals such as Contemporary European History, Mortality and Revue Belge de Philologie et d’Histoire.

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Related Chapters

David Mednicoff: Contemporary Kingship in Muslim Arab Societies in Comparative Context (See Chapter 10)

David Malitz: The Nation as a Ritual Community: Royal Nation-Building in Imperial Japan and Post-War Thailand (See Chapter 13)

Susan Broomhall: Ruling Emotions: Affective and emotional strategies of power and authority among early modern European monarchies (See Chapter 40)

Links

The past few years, a vast amount of digitised serial publications (newspapers, journals, magazines) have become available in the public domain, primarily, 18th and 19th but also 20th-century publications. These digital libraries facilitate and stimulate research into the mediatisation of royal funerals and other ritual events. Here are a few links to websites of some large-scale projects which proved of great use for the research of this chapter.

  • Au.G.U.Sto: www.augusto.agid.gov.it/
    • Database of all digitised issues of the official Italian journal, Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia, between 1860 and 1940. Calender search possible, with historical timeline.
  • Münchener DigitalisierungsZentrum: www.digitale-sammlungen.de/
    • Digital library of the Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek, with a database of digitised German newspapers and themed magazines (Digipress), including the Allgemeine Zeitung (Munich) (1798-1929). Full text- and calendar search possible.
  • ZEFYS Zeitungsinformationssystem Staatsbibliothek Berlin: www.zefys.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/index.php?id=start
    • Database of digitised German newspapers in the Staatsbibliothek Berlin, including the Berliner Börsen-Zeitung (1857-1930). Calender search possible.

Chapter 15

A Useless Ceremony of Some Use:
A Comparative Study of Attitudes to Coronations in Norway and Sweden in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries


From 1814 to 1905, Sweden and Norway formed a loose personal union in which only the King and the Foreign Service were shared by the two states. However, this arrangement was not always understood by foreigners, who tended to believe that Norway was subject to Sweden. This seems to explain the stark contrast between how coronations were viewed in the two countries. While coronations during the nineteenth century increasingly came under criticism as outdated, expensive and meaningless rituals in Sweden, there was virtually no criticism levelled at the ritual in Norway, where the fact that the kings were crowned in both countries were considered a useful and desirable affirmation and demonstration of Norway’s independence and equality with Sweden. However, when the union came to an end in 1905, coronations had outlived its usefulness and the coronation article was removed from the Norwegian Constitution three years later.

By Trond Isaksen


Trond Isaksen

Trond Norén Isaksen is an independent scholar and author of more than 250 articles and five books, including a study of Norwegian coronations from the twelfth century to the twentieth, Norges krone: Kroninger, signinger og maktkamper fra sagatid til nåtid (2015). His most recent book is Korsfareren: Sigurd Jorsalfare og hans verden (2018), a biography of King Sigurd the Jerusalemite of Norway, the first king to go on a crusade to Jerusalem.

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Web Resources

King Harald V’s New Year address. 31 December 2016. http://www.kongehuset.no/nyhet.html?tid=139789&sek=26939.

“Kronprins Haakon: Veien til et kongerike.” Broadcast on NRK1. 20 July 2013. http://tv.nrk.no/program/MKTF40000013/kronprins-haakon-veien-til-et-kongerike#.

Related Chapters

Charlotte Backerra: Personal Union, Composite Monarchy, and “Multiple Rule” (See Chapter 6)

Kim Bergqvist: Kings and Nobles on the Fringe of Christendom: A comparative perspective on Monarchy and Aristocracy in the European Middle Ages (See Chapter 37)

Chapter 16

Negotiating with the Neighbours:
Kingship and Diplomacy in Munhumutapa


This chapter analyses the social and cultural dimensions of diplomacy between Munhumutapa (Monomotapa or Mukaranga) and Portugal in the early modern world. The relationship between these sovereignties located in Africa and Europe brought in contact distinct political, social, economic and cultural backgrounds. Despite differences and violent conflicts, Karanga and Portuguese polities also shared some features and interests that enabled them to establish long-standing diplomatic interactions. Thus, they got involved in repeated exchanges of envoys aimed at reaching agreements.

Focusing on diplomatic interactions allows new understandings of the relationship between African and European polities from 1500 to 1800. First, it shows that Karanga ritual protocol when receiving and sending embassies, even though flexible, functioned as a means to shape hierarchies of power, rank and prestige, reinforcing the power of the sovereigns, the mutapa. Second, it reveals that diplomacy provided a field for cross-cultural exchanges, such as gift giving. Third, it demonstrates that African devices prevailed in the processes of legitimisation of treaties, although the European pattern of establishing alliances existed in parallel.

By Eugénia Rodrigues


Eugénia Rodrigues

Eugénia Rodrigues is a researcher at the Centro de História da Universidade de Lisboa and teaches History of Africa and History of Empires at the Faculdade de Letras of the same university. She specializes in East African History during the early modern period with a focus on gender, slavery, landed property and knowledge circulation. She is the author of Portugueses e Africanos nos Rios de Sena. Os Prazos da Coroa em Moçambique nos Séculos XVII e XVIII (Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 2013).

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Keywords

Persons

Changara; Dom Gonçalo da Silveira; Francisco Barreto; Francisco Monclaro; Ganyambadzi; Gatsi Rusere; João dos Santos; Júlio César Vertua; Manuel da Purificação; Mavhura; Simão de São Tomás; Vamuturo

Kingdoms or places:

Angola; Asia; Butwa; China; East Africa; Goa; India; Indian Ocean; Japan; Kiteve; Kongo; Monomotapa; Mozambique; Mozambique Island; Mukaranga; Munhumutapa; Persia; Portugal; Sofala; Tete; Zambezi valley; Zimbabwe; Zumbo

cross-cultural exchanges; diplomacy; ritual

Related Chapters

Philippa Woodcock: Early Modern Monarchy and Foreign Travel (See Chapter 17)

Mikolaj Getka-Kenig: In Pursuit of Social Allies: Royal Residences and Political Legitimacy in Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1804-1830 (See Chapter 22)

Beverly Stoeltje: Creating chiefs and queen mothers in Ghana: obstacles and opportunities (See Chapter 33)

Key Works

Abraham, D. P. “The Monomotapa Dinasty.” NADA 36 (1959): 59-84

Abraham, D. P. “Maramuca: An Exercise in the Combined Use of Portuguese Records and Oral Tradition.” Journal of African History 2, no. 2 (1961): 211-225

Beach, D. N. “The Mutapa Dynasty: A Comparison of Documentary and Traditional Evidence.” History in Africa 3 (1976): 1-17.

Beach, David. The Shona and the Zimbabwe 900-1850. London: Heineman, 1980.

Mudenge, S. I. G. A political history of Munhumutapa c. 1400-1902. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988.

Newitt, Malyn. A History of Mozambique. London: Hurst & Company, 1995.

Pikirayi, Innocent. The Zimbabwe Culture. Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States. Walnut Creek: Altamira Press, 2001.

Rodrigues, Eugénia. Portugueses e Africanos nos Rios de Sena. Os Prazos da Coroa em Moçambique nos Séculos XVII e XVIII. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 2013.

Biographies of the Mutapa

The state of Munhumutapa or Monomotapa, in East Africa, lasted for five centuries, between c. 1400 and 1902. The biographies of most of its rulers – the mutapa – are uncertain and some periods continue to be particularly obscure. The literature on these sovereigns has been drawing on Portuguese documents from the early 16th century onward and oral history recorded by scholars in the 20th century, which often do not match. There is also a considerable doubt about the affiliation of several mutapa.

Nyatsimba Mutota (15th century).

Son of Chikura Wadyambeu (a semi-historic figure), Mutota is considered to be the founder of the state known as Munhumutapa, Monomotapa or Mukaranga and its first mutapa. Based in Shangwe, he conquered the territories north of the Karanga plateau, Chidima and Dande, and it is supposed that shortly before his dead he subjected Guruuswa, the traditional land of the Shona.

Matope Nyanhehwe Nebedza (15th century)

Son of Mutota, he is remembered as one of the main mutapa, associated with important institutions: the cult of the royal spirit mhondoro and the cult of the Supreme Being Dzivaguru, of the Tawara subjects, related to rainmakers. His capital (zimbabwe) was located south of the confluence of the Zambezi and Musengezi Rivers. Matope expanded the state eastwards, up to the Zambezi and Luenya Rivers, which enabled him to control this gold route to the Indian Ocean. These territories were governed by relatives, above all by sons and brothers. The domain of the Tonga, on the right bank of the Zambezi, was transmitted by the alliance with the local chief, who married one of the daughters/sisters of the mutapa, giving rise to the Makombe dynasty which ruled Barwe.

Nyahuma Mukombero (?-c. 1490)

Son of Matope, he concluded the conquest of Kiteve, through which passed the route connecting the Karanga plateau with the Swahili seashore of Sofala. He installed a Karanga dynasty there, whose rulers were known as sachiteve. At this juncture the state began to disintegrate owing to competition among lineages. The changamire Torwa of Guruuswa, recorded as a vassal of the mutapa, eliminated Mukombero and most of his offspring and became the mutapa himself.

Changamire (c. 1490-93/94)

The Torwa ruler of Guruuswa, who seized power in Mukaranga.

Chikuyo Chisamarengu (1493/4-1530)

Mukombero’s son, he managed to expel the changamire and recovered control of the territory, except for Guruuswa. During his reign, Maniyka was incorporated into Munhumutapa. Kiteve became progressively autonomous, extending its influence to Danda, near the port of Sofala. Chikuyo established diplomatic and commercial relations with the Portuguese factory in Sofala founded in 1507. The mutapa was defeated in a dispute over the route connecting the plateau and the coast, in 1528, by the ruler of Danda – Nyamunda – who monopolised access to Sofala.

Neshangwe Munembire (c. 1530-1550)

Continued the conflict with Nyamunda and defeated him in a war fought in 1540-1542. The mutapa then sent an embassy to the Portuguese in Sofala to pursue trade. However, the war had left the region devastated, affecting the resumption of mercantile activities. During this period the Portuguese joined the Muslim merchants who used the Zambezi route to the Karanga plateau.

Chivere Nyasoro (c. 1550-1560)

Was probably a son of Chikuyo. During his reign the Portuguese began to participate in the gold fairs on the Karanga plateau, just like Swahili merchants already did. In 1560, the main fair, Massapa, had a Portuguese captain (the ‘captain of the doors’) who had jurisdiction and collected taxes (of which the most important was the kuruva) from all merchants in the name of the mutapa.

Negomo Mupunzagutu (Dom Sebastião) (1560-1586/9)

A son of Chikuyo, became the mutapa in a procedure contested by the ruler of Kiteve. Negomo received the first Christian mission in Mukaranga, headed by the Jesuit Dom Gonçalo da Silveira (1561), and he was baptised as Dom Sebastião, the name of the Portuguese king. He later ordered the missionary’s execution. The Portuguese warned the mutapa to expect a divine punishment for the death of Silveira and he then ordered the execution of the people who had advised him to kill the Jesuit. Negomo had to contend with a military expedition dispatched from Lisbon to avenge Silveira’s execution and to conquer Munhumutapa (1572-1575). The mutapa agreed to the Portuguese demands (freedom to trade, handing over the mines and freedom for missionary activities) but this did not change the situation on the ground.

Gatsi Rusere (1586/9-1623)

A son of the mukomohasha (captain-general of the armies) Nyandoro. During his reign the kuruva began to be paid by the Portuguese captain of Mozambique Island. From 1597 onward, Maravi groups from the area north of the Zambezi River invaded Mukaranga, while internal revolts resulted in a civil war. In 1606, one of the rebels – Matuzvianye – declared himself to be the mutapa. Gatsi Rusere demanded help from the Portuguese merchants, signing a treaty with their leader (1607). He granted the Karanga mines to the Portuguese in exchange for military assistance. Meanwhile, he decided to attack Barwe, which had failed to pay its tributes. Gatsi Rusere regained control over Mukaranga only in 1609. The unfruitful attempts by the Portuguese to discover silver in the Chikova region resulted in innumerable military clashes. At this time Barwe and Maniyka probably ceased to recognise the suzerainty of the mutapa.

Nyambo Kapararidze (1623-1629)

Was a son of Gatsi Rusere. He won the struggle for power against Mavhura Mhande, his father’s brother. After receiving the kuruva, the mutapa launched an attack against the Portuguese, possibly due to a breach of protocol. He was deposed in 1629 after Mavhura and the Portuguese formed an alliance.

Mavhura Mhande (Dom Filipe) (1629-1631)

The eldest son of Negomo Mupunzagutu, he sought military support from the Portuguese. He signed a treaty with them (1629), in which he declared himself to be a vassal of the Portuguese crown and granted it part of the territory south of the Zambezi. Mavhura was baptised by Dominican missionaries and gave them permission to establish a parish in his capital. The Portuguese gained unfettered access to the mines and the fairs on the Karanga plateau and extended their dominions in the territory south of the Zambezi, where they created the prazos (land grants).

Nyambo Kapararidze (1631-1632)

At the end of 1631, Kapararidze managed to obtain the assistance of various chiefs to attack the Portuguese and Mavhura and regained control of Mukaranga. He was especially cruel to the Dominicans, who had been Mavhura’s main supporters, and ordered their execution. However, he was defeated by the Portuguese army in the following year. Kapararidze continued to fight to recover the power.

Mavhura Mhande (Dom Filipe) (1632-1652)

Regained power with the support of his Portuguese allies, who maintained a military garrison in his capital, to defend him against attacks by Kapararidze and opponent factions among the Karanga elite. By means of the 1629 treaty he lost the ability to collect taxes from merchants and, instead of the kuruva tribute, the Portuguese administration in Mozambique would send him a saguate (gift), which, although of an equivalent value, underscored his status as a vassal. Mavhura’s government is considered to be the beginning of a set of puppet mutapa rulers controlled by the Portuguese. Nevertheless, he continued to have significant autonomy and maintained Karanga institutions.

Siti Kazurukumusapa (Dom Domingos) (1652-1654)

Was a son of Mavhura. During his father’s reign, Siti was hostile towards the Portuguese but was forced to resort to their help to accede to power, fearing an offensive by Kapararidze. His baptism (on August 4, 1652, St. Dominic’s day), as well as the baptism of his main wife, two sons and various Karanga dignitaries, made a great impact in Rome as well as in Lisbon. Siti died shortly after he became the mutapa.

Cikate (Dom João) (1654-c. 1663).

Portuguese sources mention the installation of a new mutapa, but do not indicate his name, which was probably Cikate, mentioned only in subsequent documents. The Portuguese conducted a war against this mutapa and probably assassinated him.

Mutata Kupika Dom Afonso) (c. 1663-1663)

Was a brother of Mavhura. Little is known about his reign, although it is documented by a letter sent to the King of Portugal, in which he requested that the military garrison be maintained. Portuguese merchants waged war on this ruler, who was later deposed by Karanga chiefs.

Kamharapasu Mukombwe (Dom Filipe) (c. 1663-1692)

Was a son of Mavhura. He became the mutapa backed by the Portuguese but then later dared to turn against them. In 1673, when the Portuguese again sought silver in Chikova, Mukombwe declared war against them with Maniyka’s support. In the 1680s, the mutapa regained some territories dominated by the Portuguese merchants in the plateau, in exchange for allowing them to mine and trade there. By making grants of land from the territories recovered from the Portuguese and those confiscated from his adversaries, Mukombwe promoted the formation of powerful houses. He also tried to contain the expansion of changamire Dombo of Butwa, attacking his army immediately after it had defeated the Portuguese army at Maungwe (1684). However, he was beaten and had to ally with the Portuguese. Mukombwe is remembered as one of the most important mutapa due to the role he played in the resurgence of Munhumutapa.

Nyakunembire (1692-1694)

A son of Mavhura, became mutapa, probably sustained by the changamire. In 1693, Nyakunembire appealed to the changamire to attack the Portuguese fair in Dambarare. About 60 people were killed during this assault, including Portuguese, Goans and Africans, and the Portuguese consequently abandoned the other fairs on the plateau. Nyamaende Mhande and Chirimbe, both of whom were sons of Mukombwe and had been exiled in Maniyka, took advantage of this situation. Mhande demanded the support of the Portuguese against Nyakunembire, having also mobilised important Karanga chiefs. The mutapa offered no resistance and sought refuge with the changamire. Some authors suggest that Nyakunembire began a new dynasty in Maniyka.

Nyamaende Mhande (Dom Pedro) (1694-c. 1698)

Son of Mukombwe, he was educated and baptised at the house of Dona Vicência João, a mixed-blood lady who controlled the Inhambanzo lands. The Portuguese initially refused to hold Mhande, but Dona Vicência managed to mobilise support to enlarge her protégé’s army. In 1694, Mhande was recognised as the mutapa by high rank chiefs and the Portuguese thus sent him a garrison. In the context of new discoveries of silver in Chikova, in 1696, the mutapa signed a treaty allowing the Portuguese Crown to explore these mines. However, as in the past, the Portuguese faced the opposition of the local chief and failed to locate the mines. Mhande died in c. 1698.

Chirimbi (Dom Manuel) (c. 1698-c.1702)

Was a son of Mukombwe. The Portuguese preferred Mapeze, a son of Mhande, as the mutapa, but they nonetheless sent Chirimbi a garrison to contain the hostility of some Karanga chiefs. Mapeze, in his turn, was baptised in 1699 and went to Goa, where he joined the Dominican order as Friar Dom Constantino do Rosário, as did his brother, Friar Dom João, shortly afterwards. In 1720, both these friars set sail on a journey to Lisbon but one died at the start of the voyage and the other died in São Salvador da Baía, in Brazil.

Boroma Dangwarangwa (Dom João) (c. 1702)

His reign is documented in 1702. Dangwarangwa was supported by the Portuguese merchants, which was probably the reason why the changamire invaded Munhumutapa and attacked the zimbabwe. Dangwarangwa sought refuge in the Portuguese settlement at Tete, near the Zambezi River. However, the Portuguese decided to confront the changamire and sent the few military forces they had available to join those of the mutapa. The ensuing battle resulted in the defeat of the allies and high casualties among their armies, including the life of the mutapa.

Samutumbu Nyamhandu (c. 1702-1706)

Was probably a son of Mukombwe. Having been educated by the Jesuits, Nyamhandu spoke Portuguese fluently. He came to power holded by the changamire, with whom he signed a treaty that made him a vassal of Butwa. Samutumbu was also not invested according to Karanga ceremonies, which resulted in opposition from the Karanga elite. In this context, the mutapa sought the support of the Portuguese, who were suspicious of his intentions. Taking advantage of the civil war that broke out in Butwa after the changamire died, the Portuguese allied with Barwe and Maravi Kalonga (north of the Zambezi) in 1706 and attacked Mukaranga to install another mutapa in power, probably Gende. Although he won the battle, Nyamhandu died shortly afterwards.

Little is known about the subsequent period, which was marked by a civil war among various houses, some of which had emerged as a result of the territorial grants by mutapa Mukombwe (e.g. Kasekete, Gupo, Kandewa and Changara), and by the secession of chiefdoms on the plateau. Portuguese sources allude to a mutapa Semotane, in 1709, and a mutapa Gende (Zenda, Ginde or Nyenyedzi), placed on the throne by the Portuguese in 1710, while some authors also mention mutapa Gupo, Mupunzagutu and Sakapio.

Nyamhandu (Dom João) (c. 1710-c. 1740)

Fought for power during a civil war that extended over several years. In order to obtain external legitimacy, in 1710 Nyamhandu demanded Portuguese assistance. The Portuguese were divided and refused to support him but in 1711 they sent him a garrison for a while. However, the civil war continued and in 1715 a faction among the Portuguese supported Gende as the mutapa. Nyamhandu managed to regain power and, in 1718, after the death of his main adversary, Kamota Kasekete, the Portuguese recognised him as the mutapa, baptising him and providing him a military garrison. Nyamhandu was not able to extend his rule to the plateau, establishing his capital in the lowlands near the Zambezi River, in the territory of present-day Mozambique, where his successors remained. In the meanwhile, the Portuguese established a fair in Zumbo, on the east bank of the confluence of the Luangwa and Zambezi Rivers.

Karidza Chisamaru (early 1740s)

Was a son of Boroma Dangwarangwa. He was deposed since he turned blind and sought refuge north of the Zambezi River, in Maravi territory.

Chikoka (early 1740s)

Died.

Kabwe (early 1740s)

Expelled from the zimbabwe by Debwe.

Debwe (c. 1743-1750)

Son of Nyamhandu. He began by waging war against the Portuguese, who had supported the previous mutapa. In 1745, he attacked the lands of the Portuguese Crown in the area of Tete, which obliged the Portuguese to ask the changamire for help, having formed an alliance with him in the meanwhile.

Mupunzagutu (c. 1750-c. 1760)

Son of Nyamhandu, he succeeded after the death of his brother. The Portuguese provided him a garrison and the habitual gifts. His authority over his subjects was weak, allegedly because he consumed large amounts of cannabis. In 1760, during a new civil war, Mupunzagutu was assassinated by his brother Zindave.

Zindave (c. 1760)

Son of Nyamhandu, he assassinated Mupunzagutu and declared himself to be mutapa. He persecuted his brother Kamota, fearing his opposition.

Kamota(c. 1760-1761)

Son of Nyamhandu, he defeated Zindave, who fled to Dande, where he was killed by Derere. At this time the mutapa state split into two: the western region, Dande, was governed by Derere; the eastern part, Chidima, continued to be called Mukaranga and its rulers mutapa.

Mutanyikwa (1761-1762)

Son of Karidza, he commanded an army which eliminated Kamota. He ruled for about a year and, when faced with the threat of Zeze’s army, sought refuge in Maravi territory north of the Zambezi.

Zeze (c. 1762-c. 1767)

Son of Nyamhandu, and supporter of his brother Kamota, he managed to muster an army that was powerful enough to be able to be declared the mutapa.

Ganyambadzi (c. 1767-1769)

Son of Chikoka. During a new civil war he expelled Zeze from the Zimbabwe and became the mutapa. Ganyambadzi and his vassals attacked Portuguese prazos and often obstructed the route to the Zumbo fair. In 1769, Ganyambadzi was defeated by Changara and sought refuge in Maravi territory, in the lands of chief Bive. The Portuguese feared an alliance of the two chiefs, which would be contrary to their interests, and managed to ensure that the former mutapa left Bive’s territory. In 1772, he besieged the Zumbo fair and the Portuguese had to ask for help from the changamire to defeat him. Ganyambadzi withdrew to Barwe, where he installed a new ruler.

Changara (1769-c. 1779)

Defeated Ganyambadzi in 1769. The new mutapa signed a treaty with the Portuguese administration in which he promised to provide free passage to merchants and to allow the Dambarare fair to reopen. However, the plan to resume the old fairs on the plateau was no longer of interest to merchants from the Portuguese colony and was never implemented. Since Changara’s subjects were attacking Portuguese lands, the Portuguese governor of the Zambezi Valley region prohibited trade with the Karanga in 1770 and threatened to wage war against the mutapa. Relations between the two powers were re-established in the same year and the Portuguese send a garrison with gifts. Clashes between Changara and Ganyambadzi intensified from 1776 onward.

Ganyambadzi(c. 1779-1785)

In c. 1779, Ganyambadzi’s army defeated Changara, who sought refuge near the Zumbo fair. In Barwe, Ganyambadzi demanded that the Portuguese recognise him as the mutapa, which they delayed doing since the political and military situation was still very uncertain and Ganyambadzi was not in Chidima. Finally, in 1780, the Portuguese sent a garrison with the customary gifts. The mutapa signed two treaties with the Portuguese, in 1781 and in 1783, relating to trade, diplomacy, control of lands and jurisdiction over conflicts between Karanga and Portuguese subjects. Ganyambadzi died in 1785.

Bangoma (1785-1794)

Son of Mupunzagutu, maintained amicable relations with the Portuguese. However, his subjects continuously attacked merchants at the Zumbo fair, while the former mutapa Changara sent regular embassies to the fair demanding gifts. In this context, the Portuguese shifted the settlement at Zumbo to the Mukariva Peninsula, on the western shore of the Luangwa River, in 1788. Trade at the fair was already diminishing by this time.

Changara (1794-c. 1806)

The former mutapa, regained power in 1794. His reign was marked by a serious drought in the Zambezi Valley, which impoverished the region. The chiefs who were established along the river increased taxes on the Zumbo merchants. In 1804, Mburuma chief, of the Luenge people north of the Zambezi River, attacked the fair and the Portuguese merchants abandoned it for some time. As a result, the mutapa and other Karanga chiefs lost revenues derived from taxation.

Mutua (c. 1806)

Adescendant of a former mutapa, deposed Changara and became the mutapa himself.

Choofombo (c. 1806-1810)

Son of Changara. In 1807, the Portuguese governor of the Zambezi Valley, António Vilas Boas Truão, issued orders to burn the sacred graves (matsanza) of former mutapa rulers located in the Chikova region. After various clashes, Chifombo defeated the Portuguese army and imprisoned the survivors, including the governor. The mutapa, supported by his advisors, issued orders to execute all the Portuguese, except for two brothers from the mixed-blood Cruz family, one of whom –António José da Cruz (Bereco) – was the brother-in-law of the mutapa. The hostilities continued during subsequent years. The Portuguese stopped sending the usual gifts (saguate) to the mutapa and, in 1811, they abandoned the Zumbo fair.

Very little is known about the subsequent period.

Kandeya I(1821?-c. 1830)

A mutapa from the Kandeya house, identified by scholars as Kandeya I, he resumed relations with the Portuguese administration, claiming his saguate in 1823. The gift was dispatched in 1826, but it is not known whether the Portuguese continued to send saguates in subsequent years. This period was marked by a severe famine. Additionally, a prince – Dzeka – attacked Chidima and the mutapa was forced to abandon the zimbabwe and seek refuge in the bush. These wars affected trade routes and reduced the revenues from the tributes that the mutapa collected from merchants.

Dzeka (c. 1830-c. 1843)

His reign witnessed the invasions by the Nguni from southern Africa. In 1835-36, the Nguni carried out military raids in Chidima. Even though they were defeated these attacks disrupted the trade networks.

Kataruza (c. 1843-c. 1867)

Also from the Kandeya house, he became the chief of a small territory, according to David Livingstone. However, the mutapa continued to collect taxes from the trade routes. In 1861-1862, the Portuguese officially reoccupied the Zumbo fair. In the meanwhile, several ivory merchants settled near the fair, obtaining lands from the local chiefs.

Kandeya II(c. 1867-c. 1876)

Son of Kataruza, the second mutapa known as Kandeya seized power with the support of the Cruz family, which controlled the Massangano prazo, on the south bank of the Zambezi River. The matrimonial alliance between the mutapa and the Cruz family, supported by the mhondoro (royal spirit medium) Nebeza, alarmed the Portuguese, and, particularly, those who were seizing control of lands on the southern shores of the Zambezi River. The Portuguese army defeated the mutapa at the Kangure River, a tributary of the Mazowe River, and occupied part of the territory.

Dzuda (c. 1876-c. 1890)

Son of Dzeka. In c. 1881, he mustered an army to make an unsuccessful bid to reoccupy lands dominated by the Portuguese. On the contrary, in the context of the Scramble for Africa and the rivalry with the British, the Portuguese administration encouraged the lords of lands in the Zambezi Valley to expand their territory. In 1885, the Portuguese occupied what remained of Mukaranga state and the mutapa went into exile. Dzuda tried to organize a war against the Portuguese but, in c. 1890, he was defeated by Chioko Dambamupute.

Chioko Dambamupute (c. 1890-1902)

Son of Kataruza, he tried in vain to recreate the mutapa state, while the British and Portuguese battled over the borders of their empires in the region. In 1897, Chioko managed to obtain the support of some chiefs and important mhondoro. Three years later, the makombe of Barwe and the Cruz family in Massangano joined his rebellion. Chioko was killed in 1902 when he participated in the Barwe ruler battle against the Portuguese.

Chapter 17

Early Modern Monarchy and Foreign Travel


Travel had long been used as a tool to unite disparate territories, and to cement alliances between monarchs. However, with the rise of the ambassador, some monarchs such as the later Bourbon kings, never left their territories. In contrast, Louis XII led armies over the Alps into Italy, and Henri III travelled to Poland to become its king, and from there journeyed to Austria and Italy, and back to France. This chapter shows how such royal travel had an impact upon royal power, in particular the Valois quest to assert notions of 'imperial dominion', whether through conquest or skilled diplomatic behaviour.

It considers how elements of travel such as entourage, and transport allowed a king to display his magnificence as he travelled, as well as to tie his nobility to his plans for foreign invasion and rule, and indirectly, improve a kingdom’s infrastructure. In contrast, both kings also desired anonymity at times, and the chapter demonstrates the problems inherent for any monarch who wished to temporarily downplay his earthly status. Finally, perceptions of the speed and difficulty of a journey, and how they reflected upon the monarch’s ability to rule and lead are followed in texts and images.

By Philippa Woodcock


Philippa Woodcock

Philippa Woodcock received her PhD in History from the University of London. She is a Lecturer in Early Modern European History at the University of the Highlands and Islands. She is interested in military, political and landscape history, and her work has appeared in French History, Church History and Religious Culture, and the Royal Studies Journal, as well as published in The Dictionary of Fashion.

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Woodcock, Philippa. “Living Like a King? The Entourage of Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, Governor of Milan.” Royal Studies Journal 2, no. 2 (2015): 1-25.

Annotated bibliography

  • Briggs, L. (2015) ‘Concernant le service de leurs dictes Majestez et auctorite de leur justice’ : Perceptions of Royal Power in the Entries of Charles IX and Catherine de Medicis (1564-1566,” In Ceremonial Entries in Early Modern Europe: The Iconography of Power, edited by J.R. Mulryne, Maria Ines Aliverti and Anna Maria Testaverde, 37-52. Farnham: Ashgate.
    • An ideal article to introduce the importance of royal entries and iconography in Valois France, as well as touching on female rule.
  • Delalex, H. (2016) La galerie des Carrosses Château de Versailles, Paris: Editions Artlys.
    • This short guide to the collections of the royal château of Versailles illustrates the changing technology of horse drawn vehicles.
  • Firmin, G.; Liechtenhan, F-D.; Sarmant, T. (eds.) (2017) Peter the Great: A Tsar in France – 1717, exhibition catalogue, Château de Versailles, 30 May-24 September 2017, Versailles: Lienart.
    • This exhibition catalogue details the later journeys to France of Peter the Great, showing how he used travel for wider political goals, as well as to learn about Versailles' court culture.
  • Haquet, I. (2011), L’énigme Henri III. Ce que nous révèlent les images, Paris: Presses Universitaires de Paris Ouest.
    • This in-depth study provides original analysis of the iconography of the enigmatic Henri III.
  • Korsch, Evelyn. “Renaissance Venice and the Sacred-Political Connotations of Waterborne Pageants.” In Waterborne Pageants and Festivities in the Renaissance. Essays in honour of J.R.Mulryne, edited by Margaret Shewring and Linda Briggs, 79-97. Farnham: Ashgate, 2013.
    • Closer analysis of the use of water-borne transport to impress guests with Venetian power.
  • Scheller, R. W. (1983) ‘Ensigns of authority: French royal symbolism in the age of Louis XII,’ Simiolus, 13: 75-141.
  • Scheller, R. W. (1985) ‘Gallia cisalpine: Louis XII and Italy 1499-1508,’ Simiolus, 15: 5-60.
    • Both of these articles explore the various symbolism and heraldry employed by Louis XII to convey different aspects of his rule. In particular, they show which ideas were used in France, and in Milan, reflecting his different role as king and as duke. 
  • Viallon, M. (2010) ‘Les honneurs de Venise à Henri de Valois, roi de France et de Pologne : Etude du séjour vénitien du roi Henri III en 1574,’ Paper presented at the RSA, Venice, April 2010. Published online at www.halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00550971, accessed 12 December 2016.
    • The best recent account of Henri III’s trip to Venice.

Reading List

  • Long, P.; Palmer, N.J. (eds.) (2008) Royal Tourism Excursions around Monarchy, Clevedon: Channel View Publications.
    • An edited volume introducing wider discussion of travel by members of European royal families in the modern age. Nonetheless, there are many parallels to the early modern period in terms of the aims, propaganda and organisation of royal travel.
  • La Reine Margot (1994) (18)
    • A French language film, based on the novel of Alexandre Dumas. Nonetheless, this is a very compelling introduction to the late Valois court, where the Catholic Marguerite de Valois (Isabelle Adjani) is forced into marriage with the Protestant Henri de Navarre (Daniel Auteuil). Her brothers, Charles IX (Jean-Hugues Anglade), and the future Henri III (Pascal Greggory) torment her, and her husband’s co-religionists, whilst her mother, Catherine de Medici (Virna Lisi) tries to balance the court’s rival political factions.
  • Dangerous Beauty (1998) (15)
    • Recounting the story of Veronica Franco (Catherine McCormack), late sixteenth century Venice’s most celebrated historian, this briefly touches upon Henri III’s (Jake Weber) visit from a woman’s point of view. When the king visits the city, Veronica is charged with the job of entertaining him, in order to secure French friendship for the Venetian Republic. The film recreates the sumptuous background and carnival atmosphere of Henri III’s visit in 1574.

Links

  • Gallica - www.gallica.bnf.fr
    • With over 4 million digitised documents from the National Library of France, this is the ideal portal to consult original texts, such as d’Auton or Marot’s accounts of Louis XII’s travels in Italy.
  • Archim des guerres de religion à l’édit de Tolérance vers 1540-vers 1788 - www2.culture.gouv.fr/documentation/archim/desguerresdereligion.htm
    • French National Archives selection of key, original texts for later Valois History, including the early Wars of Religion, the St Bartholomew’s Day massacre, and the assassination of Henri III.

Keywords

Louis XII; Henri III; Francis I; Peter the Great; Cosimo III de’Medici; Catherine de‘ Medici; Valois; Bourbon; Duchy of Milan; Travel; Infrastructure; Transport

Related Chapters

Charlotte Backerra: Personal Union, Composite Monarchy, and “Multiple Rule” (See Chapter 6)

Jonathan Spangler: A Family Affair: Cultural Anxiety, Political Debate and the Nature of Monarchy in Seventeenth-Century France and Britain (See Chapter 27)

Chapter 18

Kingship and Masculinity in Renaissance Portugal (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries)


This chapter seeks to examine the relationship between gender – more specifically, masculinity – and the upholding of both the power of the king and the monarchy in Renaissance Portugal, more specifically during the last generations of the House of Avis. It will be argued that, along with other variables, gender seems to have been relevant to maintaining political stability and dynastic power, through a set of practices that may or may not have been in accordance with established models of expressing masculinity.

In order to debate this topic, the analysis - covering a period between the mid-fifteenth and the late-sixteenth centuries - will contrast the evolution of didactic literature (mirrors for princes) with a set of practices, in which court events and celebrations like weddings, jousts and tournaments can be included. By proceeding to this comparison, it will be verified if theory meets practice or if there are differences between what the models propose and that which royal persons – and, by extension, the court – perpetrated actions.

By Hélder Carvahal


Hélder Carvahal

Hélder Carvalhal is finishing his PhD in Early Modern History in the InterUniversitary Doctoral Programme (PIUDHist). He is an integrated member of CIDEHUS, University of Évora. His research interests and publications are divided between royal and court studies, gender and men´s studies, war, and labour history.

Bibliography

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Buescu, Ana Isabel. Imagens do Príncipe. Discurso Normativo e Representação (1525-49). Lisbon: Cosmos, 1996.

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Carvalhal, Hélder and Isabel dos Guimarães Sá. “Knightly Masculinity, Court Games and Material Culture in Late-medieval Portugal: The Case of Constable Afonso (c.1480-1504).” Gender & History 28, no. 2 (August 2016): 387-400.

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Cloulas, Ivan. Henri II . Paris: Fayard, 1985.

Connell, Raewyn and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept.” Gender & Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829-859.

Cruz, Maria Augusta Lima. D. Sebastião. Mem Martins: Temas e Debates, 2009.

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Fletcher, Christopher. “Manhood, kingship and the public in late medieval England.” Edad Media. Revista de Historia 13 (2012): 123-142.

Fontes, João Luís Inglês. Percursos e memória: do Infante D. Fernando ao Infante Santo. Cascais: Patrimonia, 2000.

Fradenburg, Louise. City, Marriage, Tournament: Arts of Rule in Late Medieval Scotland. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991.

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Fuchs, Barbara. Exotic Nation: Maurophilia and the Construction of Early Modern Spain. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.

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Karras, Ruth Mazo. From Boys to Men: Formations of Masculinity in Late Medieval Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.

Keen, Maurice. Chivalry. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005.

Knecht, R. J. Catherine de Medici. New York & London: Routledge, 1997.

Le Roux, Nicolas. La faveur du roi: mignons et courtisans au temps des derniers Valois (vers 1547-vers 1589). Seyssel: Éditions Champ-Vallon, 2002.

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Rebelo, Diogo Lopes. Do Governo da República pelo Rei. Edited by Manuel Cadafaz de Matos. Lisbon: Távola Redonda/C.E.H.L.E., 2000.

Reeser, Todd W. Moderating Masculinity in Early Modern Culture. Chapel Hill: U.N.C. Department of Romance Languages, 2006.

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Resende, Garcia de. Crónica de D. João II e Miscelânea. Edited and prefaced by Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1973.

Richardson, Glenn. “Boys and their Toys: Kingship, Masculinity and Material Culture in the Sixteenth Century.” In The Image and Perception of Monarchy in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, edited by Sean McGlynn and Elena Woodacre, 183-206. London: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014.

Rodrigues, Ana Maria. “Gender and Legitimacy in the First Generations of the Avis Dynasty.” Paper presented at the congress Kings & Queens IV: Dynastic Changes and Legitimacy, Lisbon, June 23-27, 2015.

Rodríguez-Velasco, Jesus D. Order and Chivalry: Knighthood and Citizenship in Late Medieval Castile. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010.

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Trevisan, Mariana Bonat. “A Primeira Geração de Avis: uma Família “Exemplar” (Portugal -século XV).” PhD. diss., Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2016.

Twyncross, Meg and Sarah Carpenter. Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002.

Walker, Anita M. and Edmund H. Dickerman. “The King Who Would Be a Man: Henri III, Gender Identity and the Murders at Blois, 1588.” Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 24, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 253-281.

Wintroub, Michael. “Civilizing the Savage and Making a King: The Royal Entry Festival of Henri II (Rouen, 1550).” The Sixteenth Century Journal 29, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 165-191.

Related Chapters

Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña: The “Wise King” topos in context: Royal Literacy and Political Theology in Medieval Western Europe (c.1000-1200) (See Chapter 3)

Manuela Santos Silva: Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme (See Chapter 5)

Benjamin Wild: Clothing Royal Bodies: Changing Attitudes to Royal Dress and Appearance from the Middle Ages to Modernity (See Chapter 23)

Stephen Donnachie: Male Consorts and Royal Authority in the Crusader States (See Chapter 36)

Chapter 19

Royal Representation through the Father and Warrior Figures in Early Modern Europe


During the early modern period, monarchs had to fashion their representation around two important images, that of a father and of a warrior, in order to appear as strong rulers. Being a skillful warrior was particularly praised as an important attribute to rulership. Furthermore, as Robert Filmer explained the king was the father of a kingdom. Therefore, this chapter focuses on the significance of the father and warrior figures in rhetorical representations and how such representations were intertwined with religion, humanist ideas, as well as being used during war time or more peaceful time: achieving different purposes. This chapter offers a comparative approach, examining Charles I of England’s rhetoric alongside with Henry III of France’s, which allows to expose the complexities and fragilities behind such images and which offers a more comprehensive understanding of what it meant to be a monarch in early modern Europe.

By Estelle Paranque


Estelle Paranque

Estelle Paranque is Lecturer in Early Modern History at the New College of the Humanities and Research Fellow within the Centre for the Study of the Renaissance at Warwick University. She received her PhD in early modern history from University College London in 2016. She is a published author and her books include, Elizabeth I Through Valois Eyes: Power, Representation, and Diplomacy in the Reign of the Queen, 1558-1588 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018) and the co-edited collections Colonization, Piracy, and Trade in Early Modern Europe: The Roles of Powerful Women and Queens (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), and Forgotten Queens in Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Political Agency, Myth-Making, and Patronage (Routledge, 2018). She is currently working on her two next projects on queens and mistresses.

Bibliography

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Collection Complète des Mémoires Relatifs à l’Histoire de France par M. Petitot, Mémoire Journaux par Pierre de L’Estoile.Tome XLVII. Paris, 1825.

De Pontaymeri, Alexandre. Discours d'Estats, Où la necessité et les moyens de faire la guerre en Espagne mesme, sont richement exposez. Lyon, 1595.

De Ronsard, Pierre. Le Tombeau du Feu Roy Tres-Chrétien Charles Neufvieme, Prince Tres Débonnaire, Tres vertueux et Tres eloquent. Lyon, 1574.

Déclaration des causes qui ont mu monseigneur le cardinal de bourbon et les pairs, princes, seigneurs, villes et communautés catholiques de ce royaume de France, de s'opposer à ceux qui par tous moyens s'efforcent de subvertir la religion catholique et l'Etat. March 31, 1585. In Mémoires de la Ligue, Tome I. Amsterdam, 1758.

Discours de la Guerre Civile et Mort Tres-Regrettee de Henry III, Roy de France et de Polongne. Tours, 1590.

Discours de Preparations faictes par frere Iacques Clement, religieux de l’ordre de S. Dominicque, pour delivrer la France de Henry de Valois, lequel fust tue à S. Cloud à Paris, le premier iour d’Aoust, 1589. Lyon, 1589.

Discours fait au Roi Henri IV, à Amiens, le 21 Aout 1594. Paris, 1787.

Elizabeth I: Collected Works. Edited by Leah Marcus, Janel Mueller, and Mary Beth Rose. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press , 2000.

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Henry III of France. La Coppie de la Harangue qu’a faict le Roy, à Messieurs de Paris devant que monter à cheval, pour aller à la guerre. Lyon, 1587.

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Henry IV of France. Le Roy devant les Desputes, le dimanche 21 Aout 1594. Paris, 1787.

Knox, John. The first blast of the trumpet against the monstrous regiment of women. Geneva, 1558.

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Le Discours au Vray sur la Mort et Trepas de Henry de Valois. Paris, 1589.

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Philip II of Spain. Declaration du Roy d'Espaigne sur les troubles miseres, & calamitez qui affligent la Chrestienté, & notamment le Royaume de France (8 mars 1590). Lyon, 1590.

Philip II of Spain. Grâce et pardon général donné par la Majesté du roy catholique [Philippe II] à cause des troubles et séditions survenues en Flandres et pays circonvoisins, printed by Benoist Rigaud. Lyon, 1570.

William I of Orange. A supplication to the Kings Maiestie of Spayne, made by the Prince of Orange, the states of Holland and Zeland, with all other his faithfull subiectes of the low Countreys, presently suppressed by the tyranny of the Duke of Alba and Spaniards. By which is declared the originall beginning of al the commotions [and] troubles happened in the sayd low Countrie: to the relief wherof, they require his Maiesties speedy redresse and remedie. Faithfully translated out of Duytsch into English, by T.W. 1573.

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Carpenter, David. The Minority of Henry III. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990.

Coch, Christine. “‘Mother of my Contreye:’ Elizabeth I and Tudor Constructions of
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Edouard. Sylvène, L'Empire imaginaire de Philippe II, pouvoir des images et discours du pouvoir sous les Habsbourg d'Espagne au XVIe siècle. Paris: Honoré Champion, 2005.

Flory, Jean. Richard Cœur de Lion: Le Roi Chevalier. Paris: Payot, 1999.

Gillingham, John. Richard Cœur de Lion: Kingship, Chilvary and War in The Twelth Century. London: Hambledon Continuum, 1994.

Hackett, Helen. Virgin Mother, Maiden Queen: Elizabeth I and the Cult of the Virgin Mary. New York: Palgrave, 1994.

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Knecht, Robert, J. Hero or Tyrant: Henry III, King of France, 1574-1589. Farnham: Ashgate, 2014.

Le Roux, Nicolas. Un régicide au nom de Dieu. Paris: Gallimard, 2006.

Levin, Carole. The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power. Second edition. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 2013.

Minois, Georges. Charles VII: un roi shakespearien. Paris: Le Grand Livre du mois, 2005.

Neighbors, Dustin. “‘With My Rulinge:’ Agency, Queenship and Political Culture through Royal Progresses in the Reign of Elizabeth I.” PhD dissertation, York University, forthcoming.

Paranque, Estelle. “Another Spare to the French Crown: Henry III’s Self-Representation and Royal Authority.” In Unexpected Heirs in Early Modern Europe: Potential Kings and Queens, edited by Valerie Schutte, 139-158. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

Paranque, Estelle. “Catherine of Medici: Henry III’s Inspiration to be a Father to His People.” In Royal Mothers and their Ruling Children: Wielding Political Authority from Antiquity to the Early Modern Era, edited by Elena Woodacre and Carey Fleiner, 225-240. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

Paranque, Estelle. “Queen Elizabeth and the Elizabethan Court in the French Ambassador’s Eyes.” In Queens Matter in Early Modern Studies, edited by Anna Bertolet Riehl, 267-286. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.

Paranque, Estelle. “The Representations and Ambiguities of the Warlike Female Kingship of Elizabeth I of England.” In  Medieval and Early Modern Representations of Authority in Scotland and the British Isles, edited by Katherine Buchanan, Lucinda Dean, and Michael Penman, 163-176. London: Ashgate, 2016.

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Spiller, Ben. “Warlike Mates? Queen Elizabeth and Joan La Pucelle in 1 Henri VI.” In  Goddesses and Queens: the Iconography of Elizabeth I, edited by Annaliese Connolly and Lisa Hopkins, 34-44. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2007.

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Walsham, Alexandra. “‘A Very Deborah?’ The Myth of Elizabeth I as a Providential Monarch.” In The Myth of Elizabeth, edited by Susan Doran and Thomas S. Freeman, 143-170. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Whitelock, Anna. “Woman, Warrior, Queen?: Rethinking Mary and Elizabeth.” In Tudor Queenship: the Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, edited by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock, 173-190. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

Wolfe, Michael. The Conversion of Henri IV: Politics, Power, and Religious Belief in Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Related Chapters

Laura Fábián: The Biblical King Solomon in the Representations of Western European Medieval Royalty (See Chapter 4)

Hélder Carvalhal: Kingship and Masculinity in Renaissance Portugal (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries) (See Chapter 18)

Theresa Earenfight & Kristen Geaman: Neither Heir nor Spare: Childless Queens and the Practice of Monarchy in Pre-Modern Europe (See Chapter 30)

Emily Ward: Child kings and guardianship in North-Western Europe c.1050-c.1250 (See Chapter 32)

Chapter 20

Chasing St. Louis:
The English Monarchy's Pursuit of Sainthood


At various times, English monarchs Henry III, Edward II, and Henry VI were all promoted as potential saints. As noted by prior scholars, their cults had political elements, which did not help their causes for sainthood in Rome. However, this was not the only reason for the causes’ failures. This chapter investigates the evolution of increasingly prized papal canonizations during the Middle Ages, the patterns of royal sainthood outside of England, and the mentalities of the English royal house and its continental peers. Due to the changing desirable demographics for royal saints, St Louis’ canonization in 1297 was not only anachronistic but also dynastically and politically powerful due to the proliferation of his heirs and the transmission of his beata stirps (holy roots) across Europe. English monarchs since Henry II had relied upon the political appointment of Edward the Confessor to bolster their legitimacy and continued to do so. The lack of development of beata stirps in England, combined with other cultural differences, thwarted any English attempt at cultivating a dynastic saint during the medieval period.

By Anna Duch


Anna Duch

Anna M. Duch received her PhD in History at the University of York. She is currently the faculty lead for World Civilization courses at Columbia State Community College. Her research interests include medieval royal bodies and concepts of sanctity.

Bibliography

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The British Library, London Cotton MS Domitian A XVII
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The Chronicle of Bury St Edmunds, 1212-1301. Edited by A. Gransden. London: Nelson, 1964.

Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I and Edward II. Edited by W. Stubbs. 2 vols. RS 76. London: 1882-1883.

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Related Chapters

Manuela Santos Silva: Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme (See Chapter 5)

Matthias Range: Dei Gratia and the “Divine Right of Kings”: Divine Legitimization or Human Humility? (See Chapter 8)

Paul Webster: Faith, Power and Charity: Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England (See Chapter 12)

Genealogy of Charles Robert of Hungary

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Genealogy of Anne of Bohemia

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Chapter 21

Raising Royal Bodies:
Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image


This chapter considers Stuart monuments as agents of royal power, tracing the origins and development of sculpture as a potent political language in early modern Britain. Under the Stuarts the focus of royal monuments shifted from religious to secular commemoration. As sculpted images emerged from spiritual spaces into public arenas, meanings were re-configured and re-interpreted. Monuments came to play a pivotal role in the negotiation of royal authority. The seventeenth century witnessed transformative processes of dynastic change, political transition and representational development and these were articulated in stone, bronze and lead.

Early modern portrayals of royal power were formed through an involved dialogue between patrons, artists, and audiences. Monuments were particularly potent sites for these exchanges. Set up across Britain, Stuart sculptural schemes endowed public spaces with a symbolic royal presence which was immediate and tangible. This emotive political performance could prompt both popular devotion and destruction. The conception, erection, and afterlives of Stuart monuments powerfully evince evolving representations and perceptions of monarchy. Through analysis of royal tomb sculpture and public statuary, this chapter will explore how monuments served to mediate royal authority, public loyalty, and political opposition.

By Catriona Murray


Catriona Murray

Catriona Murray is lecturer in History of Art at the University of Edinburgh. A historian of early modern British visual and material culture, her research focuses on the intersections of art and propaganda during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

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Keywords

Philip II of Spain; Elizabeth I ; Louis XIV of France; James VI and I; Henry VIII; Charles I; Charles II; James V of Scots; Henry VII; Mary, Queen of Scots; Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury; Pietro Torrigiano; Mary I of England; Nicholas Hilliard; Maximilian Colt; Cornelius Cure; Andrea del Verrocchio; Donatello; Gian Lorenzo Bernini; Henry IV of France; Louis XIII of France; Francesco Fanelli; François Dieussart; Hubert Le Sueur; William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury; Richard Weston, Earl of Portland; Henrietta Maria, Queen of England; Marie de Medici, Queen of France; Peter Paul Rubens; Thomas Carew; Anthony Van Dyck; Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor; Giambologna; Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany; Pietro Tacca; Philip III of Spain; Louis XVIII, King of France; John Revett; Edward I of England; Eleanor of Castile; Joshua Marshall; Christopher Wren; Queen Anne; George II; Robert Walpole; James VII and II; William Larson; Leopold V, Archduke of Austria; Philip IV of Spain; William III

University College, Oxford; Newcastle; Charing Cross, London; Westminster Abbey, London; St. Johns’ College, Oxford; Pont Neuf, Paris

Monuments; Representation; Iconoclasm

Images

Pietro Torrigiano, Tomb of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York (1512-19): See image

Wenceslaus Hollar, The Statue of King Charles I at Charing Cross (1630s): See image

Related Chapters

Mikolaj Getka-Kenig: In Pursuit of Social Allies: Royal Residences and Political Legitimacy in Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1804-1830 (See Chapter 22)

Cathleen Sarti: Deposition of Monarchs in Northern Kingdoms (See Chapter 34)

Chapter 22

In Pursuit of Social Allies: Royal Residences and Political Legitimacy in Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1804-1830


This essay deals with the role of residences in monarchical propaganda and self-fashioning in Europe in the first half of the nineteenth century. It was the age of the revival of monarchy after the French Revolution, starting with its return in France in 1804, and declining in the aftermath of the July Revolution in 1830. The revival was contingent with the readiness of the reaffirmed monarchical regimes to confront the rise of the political ambitions of the expanding middle class that had means and determination to engage in public life. This essay argues that in those circumstances, the Old Regime pan-European idea of royal residence, focused on the glorification of monarchs and emphasising their utmost superiority over the people, was an ambiguous legacy for their post-Revolutionary successors. Although palatial edifices were a well-established expression of royal standing, they also contributed to the symbolic distance between royal majesty and the middle class public. Those European monarchs who found themselves in need of supporting their legitimacy and looked for social allies in the aftermath of the French Revolution, provided their publicly seen seats with notable signs of their close proximity to the common but politically-aspiring people who needed to be reckoned with.

By Mikolaj Getka-Kenig


Mikolaj Getka-Kenig

Mikolaj Getka-Kenig received his PhD in modern history from the University of Warsaw, Poland. He currently works as a post-doctoral researcher at the Jagiellonian University in Cracow, Poland. His area of research is the socio-cultural history of art and architecture in Poland and Europe, ca. 1800. He recently published a book on early 19th century Polish public memorials and their engagement with the political discourse of merit.

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Related Chapters

Christoph de Spiegeleer: The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow: Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century (See Chapter 14)

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Chapter 23

Clothing Royal Bodies:
Changing attitudes to royal dress and appearance from the Middle Ages to modernity


Since the twentieth century royal dress and appearance has become a more critical means of defining royal status: where the clothing of royal bodies had long been important for reflecting the power of monarchy, it is now important for refracting its relative powerlessness. If this appears counterintuitive, it reveals the ambivalence of modern monarchy in the face of increasing public scrutiny, which has followed the establishment of representative institutions and the continuation of globalisation. As rulers and their families have increasingly been required to justify their positions, their clothing choices have become subject to a larger range of interpretations as they try to satisfy conflicting demands to remain distinct and regal, while also becoming approachable and relevant. By taking the longue durée approach to encompass the medieval to the modern, this chapter suggests the two hundred years between c.1640 and c.1840 were an important transitional period in changing attitudes to royal dress and appearance. This transition was largely due to the period’s witnessing of the decisive curtailment of the executive and spiritual authority of royalty, even if the institution of monarchy in Europe continued to be widespread until the first half of the twentieth century.

By Benjamin Wild


Benjamin Wild

Benjamin Wild received his PhD in medieval history from King’s College London. He has worked for a number of cultural institutions, including the Victoria & Albert Museum and the Royal Academy. He has published widely on the subject of material culture, particularly on this history of dress, and is interested, broadly, in how inanimate objects become imbued with meaning.

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Annotated Bibliography

  • Burke, Peter, The Fabrication of Louis XIV, New  Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992.
    • An accessible and considered survey of the ways in which Louis XIV used material culture and ceremonial, chiefly at Versailles, to convey, extend and maintain his authority.
  • Cannadine, David, “‘The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the ‘Invention of Tradition’, c.1820–-1977.”’, in The Invention of Tradition, edited by Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, 101–-164. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,  [1983] 2016), 101-164.
    • An important article that seeks to explore the changing role of monarchy – culturally and constitutionally – in the twentieth century.
  • Gaulme, Dominique, and François Gaulme, Power and& Style: A World History of Politics and Dress, Paris: Flammarion S.A., 2012.
    • An accessible survey of rulers’ dress from around the world, from pre-history to the present.
  • Halls, Zillah, Coronation Costume and Accessories 1685–-1953, London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1973.
    • As with Tessa Rose’s volume below, a useful and accessible overview of the ceremonial dress worn at the coronations of English and British monarchs from the Middle Ages to the reign of Elizabeth II.
  • Mansel, Philip, Dressed to Rule: Royal and Court Costume from Louis XIV to Elizabeth II, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
    • One of the few monographs to study the changing role and meaning of royal dress from the early modern period, albeit focused on the courts of Europe.
  • Mantel, Hilary, “‘Royal Bodies’”, London Review of Books, 35, no. 4 (21 February 2013), 3-7.
    • A polemical and thought-provoking argument about the role and meaning of royals and their bodies (dressed or otherwise) in the present.
  • Reynolds, Anna, In Fine Style: The Art of Tudor and Stuart Fashion, London: Royal Collection Trust, 2013.
    • This catalogue accompanied an exhibition at the Queen’s Gallery, London, of the same name. It brings together a rich assortment of garments from the Royal Collection.
  • Rose, Tessa, The Coronation Ceremony of the Kings and Queens of England and the Crown Jewels, London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1992.
    • As with Zillah Halls’ volume above, a useful and accessible overview of the ceremonial dress worn at the coronations of English and British monarchs from the Middle Ages to the reign of Elizabeth II.
  • Ross, Robert, Clothing: A Global History. Or, The Imperialists’ New Clothes, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008.
    • An interesting study that considers the communicative possibilities of clothing in the present, informed by actions and ideas of the past.

Reading and viewing lists

  • Chroniques de Hainaut, Bibliotheque royale de Belgique.
    The manuscript is freely accessible here. Illustrations of the clothing worn in the Ducal court demonstrates the importance of dress is defining status in the medieval and early modern period
  • Commentary on Queen Elizabeth II’s green outfit, worn as part of the monarch’s ninetieth birthday celebrations in 2016, in Guardian, Express, Telegraph, Huffington Post, reveal much about attitudes towards the role and meaning of contemporary rulers.
  • Commentary on the Duchess of Cambridge’s cover shoot for the one-hundredth anniversary of British Vogue in 2016 is interesting for what it reveals about contemporary expectations of how royal bodies should appear: Vogue, Vogue. Commentary in British newspapers varied and was often critical Guardian, Daily Mail. The Duchess’s Erdem dress in Daily Mail, which she wore to visit a council estate in Manchester, apparently the second largest council estate in Europe, was similarly criticised for its cost.
  • The imperial coronation of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran. British Pathe, and also here, but without sound. The footage shows how the Iranian Shah used clothing and ceremonial traditions associated with European royalty to exalt and legitimise his authority.

Links

Links to Images and Videos

  1. Philip the Good in Chroniques de Hainaut. Bibliotheque royale de Belgique. The manuscript is available online, and the image is freely accessible here.
  2. Mary of Modena by Simon Verelst. Here.
  3. Duchess of Cambridge. Commentary on Erdem dress - Daily Mail.
  4. Elizabeth II's 'green screen' outfit. Commentary in Guardian, Express, Telegraph, Huffington Post.
  5. Duchess of Cambridge on Vogue cover. Commentary in Vogue, Vogue, Guardian, Daily Mail (critical commentary).
  6. Gustav III in military dress. here.
  7. George IV in coronation robes. Here.
  8. Charles II in simpler raiment. Here.
  9. Shah's coronation. YouTube clip from British Pathe, and also here (but without sound).
  10. The Disappointed Parisian cartoon and the Elegante Welt cover with Prince Joachim would not be freely available and are not currently online.

Keywords

Thematic

Clothing; symbolism; ceremonial

People

Charlemagne, King of the Franks; Charles I, King of England; Charles II, King of England; Jacques-Louis David; Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom; Elizabeth I, Queen of England; Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom; Franz Josef I, Emperor of Austria-Hungary; Frederick II, King of Prussia; George IV, King of the United Kingdom; Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger; Gustav III, King of Sweden; Haile Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia; Henry I, King of England; Henry III, King of England; Henry VIII, King of England; Adolf Hitler; James II, King of England; James VI, King of Scotland; Joachim of Prussia; Jackie Kennedy; John F. Kennedy; Jeremy Langmead; Louis XIV, King of France; Louis XVI, King of France; Mariana of Austria; Marie Antoinette, Queen of France; Mary of Modena; Alessandro Michele; Catherine Middleton, Duchess of Cambridge; Napoleon I; Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran; Samuel Pepys; Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia; Philip IV, King of Spain; Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy; Anthony Van Dyck; Victoria; Queen of the United Kingdom; Wilhelm II, King of Germany; William II, King of England; William III; King of the United Kingdom

Places

America; Austria; Belgium; Burgundy; China; England; Germany; France; Kenilworth; London; Manchester; Prussia; Russia;

Related Chapters

Christoph de Spiegeleer: The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow: Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century (See Chapter 14)

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Chad Denton: From Galanterie to Scandal: The Sexuality of the King from Louis XIV to XVI (See Chapter 41)

Chapter 24

Succession & Dynasty


This introduction surveys the themes and questions raised in the section “Succession & Dynasty” and also provides a brief summary of each of the 10 chapters that comprise it. It provides a historiographical sketch of the study of dynasties, tracing how the concept of dynasty has fallen in and out of fashion over the second half of the 20th century, and how today the concept is experiencing a significant revival of interest among serious historians of family, women, rituals, religion, and power. The introduction also explores how the study of dynastic succession has evolved over the decades. A key part of dynastic rule, succession followed many patterns and forms in the different spaces treated in this section and in this book generally: including primogeniture, agnatic succession, collateral succession, and a host of variations of these forms. The themes of succession and dynasty run through all 10 articles, even though they treat a wide range of places and periods—from ancient Egypt, to contemporary Ghana, to medieval and early modern Europe and Russia. This set of chapters is particularly strong in its treatment of women in the context of dynastic rule: as mothers of monarchs, siblings and wives of monarchs, and as rulers in their own right. The introduction therefore helps situate the topics Succession and Dynasty in the larger Problematik of monarchy treated in the other sections of this volume.

By Russell Martin


Russell Martin

Dr. Russell E. Martin is professor of History at Westminster College (New Wilmington, Penna., USA).  He is the author of A Bride for the Tsar:  Bride-Shows and Marriage Politics in Early Modern Russia, which won the 2014 W. Bruce Lincoln Book Prize, and co-author (with Wendy Salmond and Wilfried Zeisler) of Konstantin Makovsky: The Tsar’s Painter in Paris and New York, and editor or co-editor of six other books on early modern and modern Russian history.  His more than seventy peer-reviewed articles and book chapters have appeared in Slavic Review, Russian Review, Russian History, Manuscripta, Kritika, The Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, Forschungen zur Osteuropäischen Geschichte, and elsewhere, as well as a number of edited volumes and Festschriften.  He is Editor-in-Chief of Canadian-American Slavic Studies, President of the Early Slavic Studies Association, and a member of the Chancellery of the Head of the Russian Imperial House of Romanoff (Moscow).  He is presently finishing a book on royal wedding customs in Muscovy in the 16th through early 18th centuries.

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Lewis, Andrew W.  Royal Succession in Capetian France: Studies on Familial Order and the State.  Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press, 1982.

Mickūnaitė, Giedrė.  “United in Blood, Divided by Faith: Elena Ivanovna and Aleksander Jagiellon.”  In Frictions and Failures. Cultural Encounters in Crisis.  Edited by Almut Bues, 181–200.  In the series Deutsches Historisches Institut Warschau. Quellen und Studien 34.  Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017.

Muir, Edward.  Ritual in Early Modern Europe, 2d ed.  Cambridge, UK:  Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Ostrowski, Donald.  “Was There a Riurikid Dynasty in Early Rus’.” Canadian-American Slavic Studies 51, no. 1 (2017):  1–20.

Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922. 2d edition. In the series New Approaches to European History, 34.  Cambridge, UK:  Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Schönpflug, Daniel.  Die Heiraten der Hohenzollern:  Verwandtschaft, Politik und Ritual in Europa 1640-1918.  Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2013.

Strayer, Joseph R. On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970.

The Testaments of The Grand Princes of Moscow, trans. and ed., and with commentary, by Robert Craig Howes.  Ithaca:  Cornell University Press, 1967.

Wood, Charles T.  The French Appanages and the Capetian Monarchy, 12241328.  Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press, 1966.

Related Chapters

Elena Woodacre: Understanding the Mechanisms of Monarchy (See Chapter 1)

Chris Jones: Introduction (See Chapter 2)

Lucinda Dean: Introduction (See Chapter 11)

Zita Rohr: Introduction (See Chapter 35)

Chapter 25

Anticipary Association of the Heir in Early Modern Russia:
Primogeniture and Succession in Russia’s Ruling Dynasties


This chapter examines the customs of succession to the throne in Muscovy between the early 14th and the late 17th centuries. It explores the several strategies that were devised then to introduce primogeniturial succession in Russia, first with the use of testaments, then treaties between princes of different branches of the dynasty, surety oaths, public nomination ceremonies, and the association of the heir—crowning or otherwise designating as co-ruler the heir of the grand prince or tsar. These strategies were employed at different times by different rulers, alone or in combination, with the single purpose of establishing succession by primogeniture in the line of the descendants of Ivan I Kalita (ruled 1328–1341). The struggle to convert the collateral system of succession that largely prevailed in Kyivan times (from the 10th to 13th centuries), was significantly assisted by the adoption of the custom of anticipatory association, especially at times when there were other candidates for the succession in addition to the ruler’s son or grandson. Thus co-rulership (sopravitel’stvo) is a key focus of this study. The extinction in 1598 of the Muscovite house brought new families to the throne and new concerns about dynastic continuity and legitimacy. Anticipatory association would be employed by the first of these would-be new dynasties—by Boris Godunov (ruled 1598–1605) on behalf of his son, Fedor (ruled 1605)—but the Romanovs would not make use of the custom. Examining the Muscovite system of succession in these centuries and through the rise and fall of multiple dynasties reveals how anticipatory association worked in Muscovy and also how the practice there compares with the custom elsewhere in Western Europe, where co-rulership has been much more the subject of historical study than it has been in Russia.

By Russell E. Martin


Russell E. Martin

Dr. Russell E. Martin is professor of History at Westminster College (New Wilmington, Penn., USA).  He is the author of A Bride for the Tsar:  Bride-Shows and Marriage Politics in Early Modern Russia, which won the 2014 W. Bruce Lincoln Book Prize, and co-author (with Wendy Salmond and Wilfried Zeisler) of Konstantin Makovsky: The Tsar’s Painter in Paris and New York, and editor or co-editor of six other books on early modern and modern Russian history.  His more than seventy peer-reviewed articles and book chapters have appeared in Slavic Review, Russian Review, Russian History, Manuscripta, Kritika, The Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, Forschungen zur Osteuropäischen Geschichte, and elsewhere, as well as a number of edited volumes and Festschriften.  He is Editor-in-Chief of Canadian-American Slavic Studies, President of the Early Slavic Studies Association, and a member of the Chancellery of the Head of the Russian Imperial House of Romanoff (Moscow).  He is presently finishing a book on royal wedding customs in Muscovy in the 16th through early 18th centuries.

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Related Chapters

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Sarah Betts: What's in a name? Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016) (See Chapter 28)

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE) (See Chapter 31)

Map of the world's current Monarchies

The Daniilovich Dynasty and Its Competitors, 1263-1462, Showing Incidences of Anticipatory Association

Key: Dotted boxes indicate possible cases of anticipatory association.

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The Daniilovich Dynasty, 1389-1533, Showing Incidences of Anticipatory Association

Key: Solid boxes indicate anticipatory association.

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The Daniilovich, Godunov, and Romanov Dynasties, 1533-1725, Showing Incidences of Anticipatory Association

Key: Solid boxes indicate anticipatory association; dotted boxes indicate other forms of co-rulership.

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Chapter 26

From a Salic Law to the Salic Law:
The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France


Succession and the fluid transition of power from one monarch to the next are key aspects of monarchical government. Within late medieval France, well-documented circumstances have allowed modern historians to observe the creation of such a system first-hand. Prior to 1316, the Capetian dynasty had no formalized succession system, relying instead on each French king to produce a surviving son. When this mode of transmission failed in 1316, the French nobility adopted an informal rule: women could not inherit the French throne. But after two similar successions, the rule became a precedent. Thus, jurists began crafting a new law, basing it on a clause in a Salian Frankish legal code that Clovis I had promulgated nine centuries earlier. Within decades, this ‘Salic Law’ evolved into one of the most widely-utilized forms of succession in Europe. Although many historians have analysed the creation of law, none has analysed its evolution from its sixth-century origins to the fifteenth century, nor has any discussed the transmission of that law into the French periphery throughout the Early Modern era. This study observes the techniques used to create a succession system within medieval France and explains why this specific law spread so rapidly across Europe.

By Derek Whaley


Derek Whaley

Derek R. Whaley received his PhD in history from the University of Canterbury in 2018. His research focuses on medieval and early modern European dynasties and how they are presented within royal chronicles. He also maintains an interest in the local railroading history of Santa Cruz County, California.

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Keywords

Pharamond, king of the Franks; Shakespeare, William; Pactus Legis Salicœ; Salian Franks; Clovis I, king of the Franks; Chlothar I, king of the Franks; Dagobert I, king of the Franks; Les Ripuaria; Charlemagne; Lex Salica Emendata; alodial holdings (alodes); pariage; Carloman, king of the Franks; Pepin, king of Italy; Louis the Pious; Louis II, king of the West Franks; Charles the Fat; Arnulf of Carinthia; Odo, king of the West Franks; Charles the Simple; Robert I, king of the West Franks; Rudolf, king of the West Franks; Lothaire, king of the West Franks; Louis V, king of the West Franks; Charles, duke of Lorraine; Hugues Capet, king of the West Franks; Louis VII, king of the West Franks; Philippe Auguste; Louis X, king of France; Jeanne II, queen of Navarre; Philippe V, king of France; Charles IV, king of France; Philippe VI de Valois, king of France; Edward III, king of England; Isabella of France; Charles II, king of Navarre; Poitiers, battle of; Charles V, king of France; Saint-Denis, abbey of; Lescot, Richard; Charles VI, king of France; Armagnacs; Burgundians; Henry V, king of England; Troyes, treaty of; Charles VII, king of France; Montreuil, Jean de; Juvénal de Ursins, Jean, archbishop of Reims; Cousinot; Guillaume; Terre Rouge, Jean de; Fribois, Noël de; Charles VIII, king of France; Louis XII, king of France; Francois I, king of France; Karl V, Holy Roman Emperor; Henri IV, king of France; Charles de Bourbon, cardinal; Henri III, king of France; Holinshed, Raphael; Louis XVI, king of France; Louis XVII, pretender to France; Louis XVIII, king of France; Charles X, king of France; Revolutions of 1830; Louis-Philippe, king of the French; Utrecht, peace of; War of the Spanish Succession; Louis XIV, king of France; Fernando VII, king of Spain; Isabel II, queen of Spain; Carlos de Molino, Carlist pretender; Carlist Wars; Spanish Second Republic; Alfonso XIII, king of Spain; Felipe V, king of Spain; Carlos III, king of Spain; Ferdinando I, king of the Two Sicilies; Filippo, duke of Parma; Bonaparte, Napoléon I; Bonaparte, Napoléon III; Belgium; Luxembourg; Liechtenstein

Related Chapters

Manuela Santos Silva: Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme (See Chapter 5)

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Sarah Betts: What's in a name? Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016) (See Chapter 28)

The French Royal Successions of 1316 to 1328

The French Royal Successions of 1316 to 1328

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The End of the House of Valois and the Bourbon Succession, 1364 to 1589

The End of the House of Valois and the Bourbon Succession, 1364 to 1589

Download PDF (925.8KB)
The French Royal House of Bourbon, 1589 to 1830

The French Royal House of Bourbon, 1589 to 1830

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Chapter 27

A Family Affair:
Cultural Anxiety, Political Debate and the Nature of Monarchy in Seventeenth-Century France and Britain


The arts reflect the concerns of the period in which they are created. This chapter will employ samples of theatre from seventeenth-century Britain and France to examine some of the anxieties that were circulating in those kingdoms with regard to the institution of monarchy, specifically issues around royal successions and the sharing of power by various members of the royal family in a period of increasing centralisation or absolutism. The chapter explores the long history of royal succession patterns, shifting generally from systems of partition to something much more narrowly regulated (legitimate, firstborn, male). A look at the rise and decline of the royal apanage is also crucial in understanding the changing sense of loyalty to a monarch expected of a younger brother or a royal cousin, and their continued need to demonstrate their position in the hierarchy through a ‘duty to revolt’. Many of these very real political concerns were therefore mirrored in writing for the theatre in this period: plots involved princely revolts, wicked uncles murdering young kings, and stability restored once more through the re-establishment of a properly regulated order of succession.

By Jonathan Spangler


Jonathan Spangler

Jonathan Spangler is senior lecturer in history at Manchester Metropolitan University, specialising in courts and elites in France in the early modern period, and in particular on dynastic identity. He is the senior editor of The Court Historian, the journal for the Society for Court Studies, and has published widely on the court of Louis XIV, the Guise family and the Duchy of Lorraine. His current research projects focus on the role of the second son in the French Monarchy, and perceptions of same-sex relationships in early modern court societies. Read profile.

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Related Chapters

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Christoph de Spiegeleer: The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow: Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century (See Chapter 14)

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Benjamin Wild: Clothing Royal Bodies: changing attitudes to royal dress and appearance from the Middle Ages to modernity (See Chapter 23)

Chad Denton: From Galanterie to Scandal: The Sexuality of the King from Louis XIV to XVI (See Chapter 41

Chapter 28

What's in a name?
Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016)


‘The Plantagenets’, ‘The Tudors’, ‘The Stuarts’, ‘The Hanoverians’; the dynastic names that have traditionally delineated periods of English History. Monarchs of these families each incorporated, to a greater or lesser extent, an affiliation to the reputation and image of their dynasty into their own personal public personas. The accession of the six Queens Regnant - Mary I (1553), Elizabeth I (1558), Mary II (1688), Anne (1702), Victoria (1836) and Elizabeth II (1952) – each complicated the identity of the ruling house, partly due to the nature of female succession and identity in a patriarchal society, and partly because of the peculiar circumstances by which each came to the throne.

This chapter will consider the conundrum faced by female rulers over the question of personal and dynastic identity, and will explore the complexities of dynastic succession between women in a society where monarchy has been understood in terms of male-preference primogeniture. It will explore the place of dynasty in the contemporary and retrospective images and personas of the six Queens Regnant of England, and use their examples to throw into relief changing perspectives on the use of dynastic continuity and/or change within the mechanics of sovereignty particularly at moments of succession.

By Sarah Betts


Sarah Betts

Sarah Betts is a Doctoral Candidate at the University of York, UK where she is working on a thesis examining the cultural representations and afterlife of Civil War royalists and royalisms in England from the 1640s to the present day. She has broader interests in the history of monarchy, cultural memory and public history. She has published on Stuart matriarchy and queenship, civil war memorials and memorial practice in England and representations of seventeenth century history and monarchy in popular culture and television drama. In terms of Royal and Monarchy studies, she is particularly interested in taking a long durée look at perceptions of both individual monarchs and the institution/s of monarchy as a whole in Britain from the seventeenth century onwards.

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Knoppers, Laura Lunger. Politicizing Domesticity from Henrietta Maria to Milton’s Eve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Kroll, Frank-Lothar, and Martin Munke, eds. Hannover, Coburg-Gotha, Windsor: Problems and Perspectives of a comparative German-British dynastic history from the 18th to the 20th century. Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 2015.

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Waller, Maureen. Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England. London: John Murray, 2007.

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Whitelock, Anna. Mary Tudor: England”s First Queen. London: Bloomsbury, 2009.

Wonnacott, John. “35 years of portraits of the Queen from the Royal Society of Portrait Painters.” The Telegraph Online http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/the_queens_diamond_jubilee/9208836/35-years-of-portraits-of-the-Queen-from-the-Royal-Society-of-Portrait-Painters.html?image=9

Zook, Melinda. “The Shocking Death of Mary II: Gender & Political Crisis in Late Stuart England.” British Scholar 1, no. 1(2008): 21-36.

Related Chapters

Estelle Paranque: Royal Representation through the Father and Warrior Figures in Early Modern Europe (See Chapter 19)

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE) (See Chapter 31)

Chapter 29

Female Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt


The pharaohs of Ancient Egypt hold a special place in the popular conscious. Between the uniting of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer in c.3000BCE, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30BCE, Egypt was ruled by hundreds of pharaohs. Significantly, at least four of these pharaohs were women. This chapter provides one of the first academic studies of all four female pharaohs together—Sobekneferu, Hatshepsut, Tausret, and Cleopatra VII—and focuses on the way they legitimized their rule, and the way that their gender impacted their reigns and legacies.

In a monarchy that was generally conceived of as being male, female pharaohs were depicted in unique ways, which is visible in both their titulary, and the surviving material culture. Some female pharaohs adopted masculine artistic modes of representation and political conventions; some continued to present themselves as ruling women; and others combined the two styles. This chapter focuses on the way that female pharaohs reigned, and how they presented themselves and their reign: in doing so, it demonstrates that these women were not ‘usurpers’ or ‘temporary regents,’ but were legitimate rulers who reigned over their subjects as the earthly embodiment of the male god Horus.

By Aidan Norrie


Aidan Norrie

Aidan Norrie is a historian of monarchy, and a Chancellor’s International Scholar in the Centre for the Study of the Renaissance at The University of Warwick. He researches royal authority in cultures across the globe, with a particular focus on female kingship. Aidan is the editor, with Lisa Hopkins, of Women on the Edge in Early Modern Europe (Amsterdam University Press); with Marina Gerzic of From Medievalism to Early-Modernism: Adapting the English Past (Routledge); and with Mark Houlahan, of On the Edge of Early Modern English Drama (MIP University Press).

Bibliography

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Bianchi, Robert Steven. “Cleopatra VII.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, edited by Donald B. Redford, 273-4. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Callender, Gae. “What Sex was King Sobekneferu? And what is known about her reign?” Kmt: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt 9, no. 1 (Spring 1998): 45-56.

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Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. Arsinoë of Egypt and Macedon: A Royal Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.

Clauss, Manfred. “Cleopatra VII.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 1569-1571. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

Dodson, Aidan. “Amenemhat I-VII.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 355-358. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

____. “Pharaoh.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 5224-5225. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

Earenfight, Theresa. “Without the Persona of the Prince: Kings, Queens and the Idea of Monarchy in Late Medieval Europe.” Gender and History 19, no. 1 (April 2007): 1-21.

Gardiner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.

Gillam, Robyn. “Sobeknefru.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 6296. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

Goebs, Katja. “Kingship.” In The Egyptian World, edited by Toby Wilkinson, 275-95. London: Routledge, 2007.

Grajetzki, Wolfram. “Middle Kingdom, Egypt.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 4490-4494. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

Haley, Shelley P. “Cleopatra VII.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History, edited by Bonnie G. Smith, 417-418. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

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Kantorowicz, Ernst. The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957.

Keller, Cathleen A. “Hatshepsut as a Maned Sphinx.” In Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, edited by Catharine H. Roehrig, 166. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.

———.“The Joint Reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III.” In Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh, edited by Catharine H. Roehrig, 96-98. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.

Laboury, Dimitri. “How and Why Did Hatshepsut Invent the Image of Her Royal Power?” In Creativity and Innovation in the Reign of Hatshepsut, edited by José M. Galán, Betsy M. Bryan, andPeter F. Dorman, 49-92. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of The University of Chicago, 2014.

Leprohon, Ronald J. The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2013.

Matić, Uroš. “(De)queering Hatshepsut: Binary Bind in Archaeology of Egypt and Kingship Beyond the Corporeal.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23, no. 3 (2016): 810-31.

Monter, William. The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300-1800. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.

Richter, Barbara A. The Theology of Hathor of Dendera: Aural and Visual Scribal Techniques in the “Per-Wer” Sanctuary. Atlanta: Lockwood Press, 2016.

Roehrig, Catharine H. “Forgotten Treasures: Tausret as Seen in Her Monuments.” In Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt, edited by Richard H. Wilkinson, 48-67. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Roller, Duane W. Cleopatra: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

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Scott, Joan W. “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis.” The American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (December 1986): 1053-1075.
Spencer, Jeffrey. The British Museum Book of Ancient Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 2007.

Tyldesley, Joyce. “Foremost of Women: The Female Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt.” In Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt, edited by Richard H. Wilkinson, 5-24. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2003.

____. “Tausret.” In The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, 6543-6545. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2012.

____. “The ‘Temple of Millions of Years’ of Tausret.” In Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt, edited by Richard H. Wilkinson, 92-105. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

____. “The Queen Who Would Be King.” In Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt, edited by Richard H. Wilkinson, 1-5. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Wilkinson, Toby, ed. The Egyptian World. London: Routledge, 2007.

Winlock, H.E. Excavations at Deir El Bahari: 1911-1931. New York: Macmillan, 1942.

Related Chapters

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE) (See Chapter 31)

Beverly Stoeltje: Creating chiefs and queen mothers in Ghana: obstacles and opportunities (See Chapter 33)

Susan Broomhall: Ruling Emotions: Affective and emotional strategies of power and authority among early modern European monarchies (See Chapter 40)

Chapter 30

Neither Heir Nor Spare:
Childless Queens and the Practice of Monarchy in Pre-Modern Europe


Conventional wisdom holds that queens’ main purpose in a marriage was to produce sons or face dire consequences. Historical scholarship, while more measured and based in empirical evidence, has also prioritized the mothering aspect of queenship. Yet, childless queens generally were not repudiated by their husbands. Instead they remained visible embodiments of monarchy who performed other duties of queenship.

Nevertheless, monarchs were not likely to accept childlessness without a fight, which often included an arsenal of medical and spiritual remedies. If childlessness could not be overcome, monarchs would cope in other ways, such as devoting themselves to other (often maternal) duties, justifying their childlessness as a deliberate choice, or finding other heirs.

This piece investigates childless queens in medieval and early-modern Europe, with a focus on England, France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. It covers diverse topics such as the medical history of childless queens, the history of spiritual remedies for royal infertility, and literature and art that touch on royal childlessness. In addition, it examines the personal and political implications of childlessness and how monarchs coped with these problems. Finally, it will examine how childlessness did not mean a queen was a failure, thus broadening our understanding of pre-modern queenship.

By Kristen L. Geaman and Theresa Earenfight


Kristen L. Geaman

Kristen L. Geaman received her PhD in medieval history from the University of Southern California. She currently teaches medieval and pre-modern world history at the University of Toledo in Ohio, USA. She is interested in women’s and gender history, and her work has appeared in English Historical Review and Social History of Medicine.

Theresa Earenfight

Theresa Earenfight, Professor of History at Seattle University, focuses her teaching and research on queens and queenship in medieval and early modern Europe. She is the author of The King's Other Body: Maria of Castile and the Crown of Aragon (2010) and Queenship in Medieval Europe (2013), and is currently at work on a study of Queen Catherine of Aragon. 

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Parsons, John Carmi.  “The Intercessory Patronage of Queens Margaret and Isabella of France.” Thirteenth Century England VI, edited by Michael Prestwich, Richard Britnell, and Robin Frame, 145-156. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1995.

Parsons, John Carmi and Bonnie Wheelers, editors. Medieval Mothering. New York: Garland, 1996.

Parsons, John Carmi.  “The Pregnant Queen as Counsellor and the Medieval Construction of Motherhood.” In Medieval Mothering, edited by John Carmi Parsons and Bonnie Wheeler, 39-61. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.

Parsons, John Carmi.  “The Queen’s Intercession in Thirteenth-Century England.” In Power of the Weak: Studies on Medieval Women, edited by Jennifer Carpenter and Sally-Beth MacLean, 147-177. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995.

Parsons, John Carmi.  “Ritual and Symbol in the English Medieval Queenship to 1500.” In Women and Sovereignty, edited by Louise O. Fradenburg, 60-77. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992.

Powell, Hilary. “The ‘miracle of childbirth’: The Portrayal of Parturient Women in Medieval Miracle Narratives.” Social History of Medicine 25, no. 4 (2012): 795–811.

Rawcliffe, Carole. “Richard, Duke of York, the King’s ‘obeisant liegeman:’ a New Source for the Protectorates of 1454 and 1455.” Historical Research 60, no. 142 (1987): 232–39.

Ruiz-Domènec, José Enrique. El depertar de la mujeres: la Mirada femenina en la Edad Media. Barcelona: Ediciones Península, 1999.

Sablonier, Roger, “The Aragonese Royal Family Around 1300.” In Interest and Emotion: Essays on the Study of Family and Kinship, edited by H. Medick and D. W. Sabean, 210-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

St. John, Lisa Benz. Three Medieval Queens: Queenship and the Crown in Fourteenth-Century England. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

Saul, Nigel. Richard II.  New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997.

Shadis, Miriam. “Blanche of Castile and Facinger’s ‘Medieval Queenship’: Reassessing the Argument.” Capetian Women, edited by Kathleen Nolan, 137-61. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Sheingorn, Pamela. “Appropriating the Holy Kinship: Gender and Family History.” In Interpreting Cultural Symbols: Saint Anne in Late Medieval Society, edited by Kathleen Ashley and Pamela Sheingorn,169-98. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990.

Stafford, Pauline. Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in Eleventh-century England. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.

Stanton, Anne Rudloff. “From Eve to Bathsheba and beyond: Motherhood in the Queen Mary Psalter.” In Women and the Book: Assessing the Visual Evidence, edited by Lesley Smith and Jane H. M. Taylor, 172-89. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.

Strohm, Paul. “Queens as Intercessors.” In Hochon’s Arrow: The Social Imagination of Fourteenth-Century Texts, 95-119. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

Tremlett, Giles. Catherine of Aragon, Henry’s Spanish Queen: A Biography. London: Faber and Faber, 2010.

Tuck, Anthony. “Richard II and the House of Luxemburg.” In Richard II: the Art of Kingship, edited by Anthony Goodman and James L. Gillespie, 205-229. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999.

van Dussen, M.  “Three verse eulogies of Anne of Bohemia.” Medium Aevum 78, no. 2 (2009): 229–60.

Whitley, Catrina Banks and Kyra Kramer. “A new explanation for the reproductive woes and midlife decline of Henry VIII.” The Historical Journal 53, no. 4 (2010): 827–48.

Wood, Charles T. “The First Two Queens Elizabeth, 1464–1503.” In Women and Sovereignty, edited by Louise O. Fradenburg, 121-31. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1991.

Annotated Bibliography

  • Hunt, Tony. “Obstacles to Motherhood.” In Motherhood, Religion, and Society in Medieval Europe, 400–1400. Edited by Conrad Leyser and Lesley Smith. 205-212. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011.
    • Looks at a variety of medieval tracts (some medical, some moral) to explore some of the reasons given for women’s childlessness.
  • Laynesmith, Joanna L.  The Last Medieval Queens: English Queenship 1445-1503. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. 
    • Looks at late medieval English queenship as an office and highlights some of the ways queens were necessary for more than just giving birth.
  • L’Estrange, Elizabeth.  Holy Motherhood: Gender, Dynasty and Visual Culture in the Later Middle Ages. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008.
    • Not specifically about queens, but this book looks at motherhood and highlights a number of women who struggled with fertility.
  • McCracken, Peggy. The Romance of Adultery: Queenship and Sexual Transgression in Old French Literature. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998.
    • Shows how childlessness could be a benefit at times, such as when a queen committed adultery.
  • Stafford, Pauline.  Queen Emma and Queen Edith: Queenship and Women's Power in eleventh-century England. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
    • This book looks at two important English queens, one of whom (Edith) was childless.

Reading List

Dunn, Diana. “Margaret of Anjou monster-queen or dutiful wife?” Medieval History 4 (1994), 199-217.

      • Accessible look at some of the issues surrounding queenship and gendered expectations of women.

Facinger, Marion. “A Study of Medieval Queenship: Capetian France, 987-1237.”  Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 5 (1968): 3-48.

      • Classic study of queenship that helped set the parameters of the field for a time. Many scholars argue with a number of Facinger’s contentions, so it can be a way to show students historiography on queenship.

Shadis, Miriam.  “Blanche of Castile and Facinger’s ‘Medieval Queenship’: Reassessing the Argument.” In Capetian Women. Edited by Kathleen Nolan. 137-161. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

      • Works well with Facinger to teach historiography.

Earenfight, Theresa. Queenship in Medieval Europe. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

      • Excellent introduction to medieval queenship.

Links

BHO - British History Online - www.british-history.ac.uk/

      • Indispensable website for all things British - digitalized sources for the period 1300-1800 as well as helpful subject guides on different topics and their sources.

Feminae - www.inpress.lib.uiowa.edu/feminae/WhatIsFeminae.aspx

      • The Medieval Women and Gender Index contains bibliographic information on articles about queens and other medieval women.

The International Medieval Bibliography - www.brepolis.net/

      • Vast bibliography covering the entire middle ages; a great first stop for any research about the period; behind a pay-wall.

Keywords

Catherine of Aragon; Mary I; Henry VIII; Isabel of Castile; Jaume II; Blanca of Naples; Marie of Lusignan; Elisenda de Montcada; Anne of Bohemia; Richard II; Joan of the Tower; David of Scotland; Philippa of Lancaster; João I; Pierre André de Pulcro Visu; Gaston IV Count of Foix; Edith of Wessex; Edward the Confessor; Aelred of Rievaulx; Emperor Henry II; Cunigunde; Philippe de Mézières; María of Castile; Alfonso V of Aragon; Henry III of France; Louise of Lorraine; Catherine de Medici; Mary of Modena; James II of England; Agnes Strickland; St. Anne; Charlotte of Savoy; Louis XI; St. Petronilla; Virgin Mary; Margaret of Anjou; Edward IV; Elizabeth Woodville; Anne of Brittany; St. Margaret; Clothilde; William of Malmesbury; Gilbert of Sempringham; Eleanor of Provence; Henry III of England; Edward I; Eleanor of Castile; Margaret of France; Isabella of France; Edward II; Philippa of Hainault; Henry of Grosmont, duke of Lancaster; Catherine of Braganza; Charles II; Louise de Kéroualle; Lady Castlemaine; Isabel de Villena;

England; Castile; Aragon; Portugal; Holy Roman Empire; Naples; Catalonia; France; Montserrat; Notre-Dame du Puy; Our Lady of Walsingham; Wilton Abbey

Infertility; Childlessness; Queenship

Related Chapters

Paul Webster: Faith, Power and Charity: Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England (See Chapter 12)

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE) (See Chapter 31)

Henric Bagerius and Christine Ekholst: For Better or for Worse: Royal Marital Sexuality as Political Critique in Late Medieval Europe (See Chapter 38)

Chad Denton: From Galanterie to Scandal: The Sexuality of the King from Louis XIV to XVI (See Chapter 41)

Chapter 31

Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE)


In the ancient Near East the royal harem was at the centre of political life. The royal harem was often a particular centre of intrigue, rebellion, and even assassination. Within this hierarchy of peoples, contradictions arose as to the function of the harem’s role in creating political stability and continuity and gave rise to dangerous conflicts and in all Near Eastern courts, personal intrigues within the harem generated significant power politics. The manoeuvrings of wives and concubines in ensuring privileged positions for their sons in court hierarchy show how genuine political power-struggles operated among females of the court. These reports of amphimetric conflicts demonstrates the importance of the harem as a political institution. This particular strain of courtly tension, where polygyny was practised on a grand scale, but where there was no role for an official ‘queen’ or first wife, royal wives often hated each other; the various groups of paternal half-siblings hated each other too; but the most intense hatred of all was reserved for the relationship between children and their stepmothers. Moreover, in a policy of absolutism, where empires were considered to be the personal domain of the royal family, it was natural that the important women within the royal family would assume legitimate roles of authority.

By Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones


Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones

Professor Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones is Chair of Ancient History at University of Cardiff (Wales, UK). He is a noted specialist on rulership and court society in the Ancient Near East and has published extensively in this area including King and Court in Ancient Persia 559-331 BCE (Edinburgh, 2013; Persian translation, 2015), The Hellenistic Court (Classical Press of Wales, 2017) and articles on royal women of Persia, Egypt, and the Near East. Future publications include monographs on Kleopatra III and Kleopatra Thea (Routledge), and a study of Achaemenid Iran (Routledge). He also works on reception studies, having published Designs on the Past: How Hollywood Created the Ancient World (Edinburgh, 2018) and his new project looks at ancient imagery in court portraiture and theatricals c. 1550-1800..

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Brosius, M. Women in Ancient Persia (559-331 BC). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Chavalas, M., ed. The Ancient Near East. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.

Dodson, A. and Hilton, D. The Complete Families of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.

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Sancisi-Weerdenburg, H. “Decadence in the Empire of decadence in the sources? From source to synthesis: Ctesias.”  In Achaemenid History I. Sources, Structures and Synthesis, edited by H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, 33-45. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1987.

Seigle, C.S. and L.H. Chance. Ōoku. The Secret World of the Shogun’s Women. Amherst: Cambria Press, 2014.

Sharlach, T.M. An Ox of One’s Own. Royal Wives and Religion at the Court of the Third Dynasty at Ur. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017.

Solvang, E.K. “Guarding the House. Conflict, Rape, and David’s Concubines.” In Sex in Antiquity, edited by M. Masterson, N. Sorkin Rabinowitz, and J. Robson, 50-66. London: Routledge, 2015.

Svärd, S. “Women, Power, and Heterarchy in the Neo-Assyrian Palaces.” In Organization, Representation, and Symbols of Power in the Ancient Near East, edited by G. Wilhelm, 507-518. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012.

Toorawa, S., ed. Ibn Al-Sa’i. Consorts of the Caliphs. Women and the Court of Baghdad. New York: New York University Press, 2015.

Weber Libby, E. The Favourite Child. New York: Prometheus Books, 2010.

Woodacre, E. “Introduction: Royal Mothers and their Ruling Children.” In Royal Mothers and their Ruling Children. Wielding Political Authority from Antiquity to the Modern Era, edited by E. Woodacre and C. Fleiner, 1-8. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.

Keywords

Harem; Wives; Concubinage; Empire; Assyria; Persia; Israel; Egypt Succession; Amphimetric

Related Chapters

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Sarah Betts: What's in a name? Dynasty, Succession and England's Queens Regnant (1553-2016) (See Chapter 28)

Aidan Norrie: Female Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt (See Chapter 29)

Beverly Stoeltje: Creating chiefs and queen mothers in Ghana: obstacles and opportunities (See Chapter 33)

Chapter 32

Child kings and guardianship in North-Western Europe, c. 1050-1250


Despite the inherent political contradictions of a child king, pre-adolescent boys regularly succeeded to the thrones of European kingdoms throughout the Middle Ages. Between 1050 and 1250, it was queen mothers, or leading ecclesiastical or secular magnates, who most often assumed responsibility for the guardianship of king and kingdom. Comparing the roles and responsibilities of the men and women governing the kingdom during a royal minority provides important insights into the relationship between gender, rulership, and legitimacy. Viceregal guardians needed support for their appointment and were targeted by those who doubted their suitability, regardless of whether it was the queen mother or a male magnate in this position. Yet, gender shaped the way in which a guardian was chosen, and gender influenced contemporary perceptions of their participation in rule. Queen mothers were particularly vulnerable to gendered tropes targeting their legitimacy to act for their son, sometimes through negative remarks regarding their foreign origins or slurs of sexual transgressions. Although some queens unequivocally involved themselves in royal justice, military leadership, and networks of lordship, fundamental developments in lordship and kingship in north-western Europe by the mid-thirteenth century presented greater challenges to a woman ruling for her underage son.

By Emily Joan Ward


Emily Joan Ward

Emily Joan Ward studied for her PhD in medieval history at the University of Cambridge (Emmanuel College). She held a Scouloudi Doctoral Fellowship at the Institute of Historical Research in London in 2016/17 and is currently a Moses and Mary Finley Research Fellow at Darwin College, University of Cambridge. She is interested in child kingship, boyhood and male adolescence, and comparative European history more generally. She has published articles in Historical Research (2016) and Anglo-Norman Studies (forthcoming, 2018).

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Sansterre, Jean-Marie. “Mère du roi, épouse du Christ, et fille de Saint Pierre: les dernières années de l’impératrice Agnès de Poitou. Entre image et réalité.” In Femmes et pouvoirs des femmes à Byzance et en Occident (VIe – XIe siècles): colloque international organisé les 28, 29 et 30 mars 1996 à Bruxelles et Villeneuve d’Ascq, edited by Stéphanie Lebecq et al., 163-74. Villeneuve d’Ascq: Université Charles de Gaulle-Lille 3, 1999.

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Smith, Caroline,trans. Chronicles of the Crusades: Joinville and Villehardouin. London: Penguin, 2008.

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Strickland, Matthew. “Against the Lord’s Anointed: Aspects of Warfare and Baronial Rebellion in England and Normandy, 1075-1265.” In Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt, edited by George Garnett and John Hudson, 56-79. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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von Oefele, Edmund, ed. Annales Altahenses maiores. Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum separatim editi 4. Hanover: Hahn, 1891.

Wailly, Natalis de, and Guigniaut, Joseph-Daniel, eds. Extraits de la chronique attribuée a Baudoin d’Avesnes, fils de la comtesse Marguerite de Flandre, Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France 21. Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1855.

Waitz,Georg, ed. Chronicon Wirziburgense. MGH SS 6. Hanover: Hahn, 1844.

Ward, Emily Joan. “Anne of Kiev (c.1024 – c.1075) and a Reassessment of Maternal Power in the Minority Kingship of Philip I of France.” Historical Research 89 (2016): 435-53.

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Zajac, Talia. “Gloriosa regina or ‘Alien Queen’?: Some Reconsiderations on Anna Yaroslavna’s Queenship (r. 1050-1075).” Royal Studies Journal 3 (2016): 28-70.

Annotated Bibliography

  • Bertelli, S. (2001) The King's Body: The Sacred Rituals of Power in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
    • A general study exploring the idea of the king’s body and its importance for sacred rituals and political power. It offers a good start for discussions of the importance of symbolism and rituals in the practice of kingship.
  • Robinson, I. S. (trans.) (2015), The Annals of Lampert of Hersfeld, Manchester: Manchester University Press
    • A translation of one of the key contemporary sources for the minority of the Salian king Henry IV. Provides the fullest account of Henry’s kidnap in 1062 by the archbishop of Cologne.
  • Bryant, N. (trans.) (2016), The History of William Marshal, Martlesham: The Boydell Press
    • New translation of the biography of William Marshal, the man who was guardian of King Henry III and the English kingdom between October 1216 and his death in May 1219. This is a major primary source for events in England at the time of King John‘s death and Henry III’s succession as a nine-year-old boy.
  • Smith, C. (trans.) Chronicles of the Crusades: Joinville and Villehardouin, London: Penguin, 2008
    • Jean de Joinville served Louis IX of France and accompanied him on the Seventh Crusade. From the 1270s, he wrote the History of Saint Louis, one of the most informative texts for reconstructing the narrative of Louis’s reign. Written in the vernacular French (rather than Latin), Joinville’s work provides a unique perspective of the king from a layman who knew him well. This modern translation is an accessible version of Joinville’s chronicle and additionally contains biographical information on the author.
  • Beem, C. (ed.) (2008), The Royal Minorities of Medieval and Early Modern England, New York: Palgrave Macmillan
    • Delving into several cases in which underage male kings have sat on the throne of England between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, this collection of essays assesses the impact minorities can have on political and constitutional development. Christian Hillen’s article on Henry III is particularly useful in placing the English king into his contemporary European context.
  • Bennett, J. M.; Karras, R. M. (eds.) (2013), The Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • This wide-ranging collection of essays covers a variety of topics concerning gender, including religion, law, domestic life, and sexualities, as well as considering issues of continuity and change over the Middle Ages. The essays look at women across a broad social spectrum. Select articles on female rulership, and women and family, provide an excellent introduction to some of the representations and responsibilities of royal and aristocratic women.
  • Wilkinson, L. J. (2014) A Cultural History of Childhood and Family in the Middle Ages, paperback edn, London: Bloomsbury Academic
    • An ideal starting place for scholars interested in finding out more about medieval childhood more generally. Although this volume of essays does not specifically deal with the concept of a child king, it expands on topics such as childhood education, the life cycle, family, and material culture.
  • LoPrete, K. A. (2007) ‘Women, gender and lordship in France, c.1050-1250’, History Compass 5/6, 1921-41
    • Excellent article which argues strongly for continuity between the powers of non-royal women in the early and central Middle Ages, showing how the acceptance of female lords was routine in France across the period.
  • Hay, D. J. (2008), The Military Leadership of Matilda of Canossa, 1046-1115, Manchester: Manchester University Press
    • Detailed re-analysis of the figure of Matilda of Tuscany/Canossa with extensive historiographical discussion of the role of women in medieval rulership and military leadership.

Links

  • Epistolae: Medieval Women’s Latin Letters
    • Indispensable collection of Latin letters to and from women between the fourth and thirteenth centuries. Includes transcriptions and English translations of the letters, as well as helpful biographical notes and historical context on many of the women mentioned.
  • The National Archives
    • Discovery, the National Archive’s online catalogue, holds millions of descriptions of records held at the archives and across the UK. It is particularly useful for royal records of English and Scottish kings. As well as access to primary source information, the website has a blog, videos, and audio on many subjects related to medieval English monarchs and royal records.
  • Gallica
    • This digital library for the Bibliothèque Nationale de France is a fantastic free resource for French history. It contains thousands of printed works (many of them out-of-print), manuscripts, graphic materials, and sound recordings. The materials online are royalty-free and available free of charge when used strictly for private purpose. Some charters and royal documents from the Archives Nationales in Paris are also available through this site.
  • Feminae: Medieval Women and Gender Index
    • This index, compiled by librarians and scholars, is a useful place to find journal articles, book reviews, and essays in books about women, sexuality, and gender during the Middle Ages. It covers the period 450-1500, includes interdisciplinary works, and works in several European languages besides English. The site additionally highlights specific articles, translations, and images concerning gender, and provides a range of other valuable resources.
  • Henry III Fine Rolls Project
    • This AHRC-funded project finished in 2011, but the website remains an invaluable home to primary sources, as well as secondary material, for the reign of Henry III of England. Contains full translations of all the Fine Rolls 1–57 Henry III (1216–1272), with high quality images of the original documents. Helpful introductions to Henry III’s reign, and the Fine Rolls themselves, can be found under the ‘commentary’ section. There are also various blog posts and ‘Fine of the Month’ entries by historians and archivists covering a wide range of topics.

Keywords

Adalbert, archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen; Adam of Bremen; Agnes of Poitou, empress; André Poulet; Anne of Kiev, queen of France; Anno, archbishop of Cologne; Anonymous of Béthune; Baldwin V, count of Flanders; Bamberg; Beauvais, bishop of; Blanche, countess of Champagne; Blanche of Castile, queen of France; Blanche of Navarre; Chartres, bishop of; Eïchstatt; England; Ferdinand, count of Flanders; Flanders; France; Geoffrey of Beaulieu; Germany; Goslar; Gregory VII, pope; Guala Bicchieri, papal legate; Henry I, king of France; Henry III, emperor; Henry III, king of England; Henry IV, king of Germany; Henry, bishop of Augsburg; Herrand, bishop of Strasburg; Honorius III, pope; Hugh of la Ferté; Hungary; Innocent III, pope; Isabella of Angoulême, queen of England; John, king of England; Kaiserswerth; Lambert Cadurc; Lambeth; Lampert of Hersfeld; Lincoln; Lindy Grant; Louis VIII, king of France; Louis IX, king of France; Matilda of Boulogne; Matilda of Tuscany; Matthew Paris; Matthew Strickland; Meinhard, magister scholarum at Bamberg; Ménestrel of Reims; Pandulph, papal legate; Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester; Philip I, king of France; Philip II ‘Augustus’, king of France; Ranulf (III), earl of Chester; Reims; Richard, son of King John; Romanus Frangipani, papal legate; Rome; Saint-Bertin, abbot of; Saint-Germain-des-Prés, monastery; Saint-Thierry, monastery; Spain; Theobald, count of Champagne; Victor II, pope; Walter Cornut, archbishop of Sens; William Marshal, earl of Pembroke

Childhood; Gender; Regency

Related Chapters

Catriona Murray: Raising Royal Bodies: Stuart Authority and the Monumental Image (See Chapter 21)

Theresa Earenfight & Kristen Geaman: Neither Heir nor Spare: Childless Queens and the Practice of Monarchy in Pre-Modern Europe (See Chapter 30)

Beverly Stoeltje: Creating chiefs and queen mothers in Ghana: obstacles and opportunities (See Chapter 33)

Joanne Paul with Valerie Schutte: The Tudor Monarchy of Counsel and the Growth of Reason of State (See Chapter 39)

Chapter 33

Creating Chiefs and Queen Mothers in Ghana: Obstacles and Opportunities


Chieftaincy in Ghana has been engaged with modernity since the precolonial era, and consequently has transformed itself while maintaining its fundamental features. Based on a dual gender system of leadership, the Akan groups, the Asante especially, are characterized by a hierarchical system which is replicated throughout their domain in which the King and Queen Mother of Asante sit at the top, and paramountcies, towns and villages all have a chief and queen mother. For Akan groups Queen Mothers are an essential feature of succession, as defined in the political system. Nevertheless, disputes arise in the Akan groups as well as the numerous other ethnic groups of Ghana. Chieftaincy throughout Ghana has achieved a new popularity in the 21st century which means that individuals attempting to become a chief or queen mother are contributing to disputes. In addition, external conditions such as economic forces are also influences on succession and disputes. These multiple circumstances in contemporary Ghana are discussed as they are affecting succession in chieftaincy.

By Beverly Stoeltje


Beverly Stoeltje

Beverly Stoeltje received her PhD degree in Anthropology/Folklore at the University of Texas, Austin, in 1979 and taught there for six years. She was a member of the faculty at Indiana University, Bloomington, from 1986 until retirement in 2013. She has published on Asante Queen Mothers, the Asante courts, the integration of chieftaincy with modernity, ritual and festival, rodeo, women of the West, beauty contests, and gender in numerous journals, books and other publications.

Bibliography

Arhin, Kwame. Traditional Rule in Ghana.  Accra: Sedco Publishing Ltd., 1985.

Brobbey, S.A. The Law of Chieftaincy in Ghana. Accra: Advanced Legal Publications, 2008.

Constitution of the Republic of Ghana. Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1992.

Hagan, G.P. “Epilogue: The Way Forward - New Wines and Broken Bottles.” In Chieftaincy in Ghana, edited by Irene K. Odotei and Albert K. Awedoba , 663- 673. Legon, Accra: Sub-Saharan Publishers, 2006.

Kufour, H.E. John Agyekum Kufour.  “Address.” In Chieftaincy in Ghana, edited by Irene K. Odotei and Albert Awedoba, 675-678.  Legon, Accra: Sub-Saharan Publishers, 2006.

McKaskie, T.C. “Agyeman Prempeh before the Exile.” In The History of Ashanti Kings and the Whole Country Itself, edited by A. Adu Boahen, EmmanuelAkyeampong, Nancy Lawler, T.C. McCaskie, and Ivor Wilks, 3-20.  New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2003.

__________. State and Society in Pre-Colonial Asante. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Owusu-Sarpong, Christianne. “From Words to Ritual Objects.”  In Ghana: Yesterday and Today, edited by Christiane Falgayrettes-Leveau and Christiane Owusu-Sarpong, 25-91. Paris: Musee Dapper, 2003.

Rattray, R.S. Ashanti. London: Oxford University Press, 1923.

_______. Ashanti Law and Constitution. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969 (1911).

Rathbone, Richard. Nkrumah and the Chiefs. Oxford: James Curry, 2000.

Sarbah, John Mensah. Fanti National Constitution. London: Frank Cass and Co. Limited, 1906.

Stoeltje, Beverly J. “Asante Queenmothers: A Study in Female Authority.”  In Queens, Queen Mothers, Priestesses, and Power, edited by Flora Kaplan, 41-71. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1997.

________. “Asante Queenmothers in a Postcolonial Society.” Research Review, New Series, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana 19, no. 2 (2003):1-19.

_______.“Disentangling Modernity in Ghana: The Cosmopolitan Chief.” West African Review 22 (2013): 9-25.

Wilks, Ivor. Asante in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975.

Annotated bibliography

  • Arhin, Kwame.  Traditional Rule in Ghana. Accra; Sedco Publishing ltd.  1985.
    • A brief but straightforward description of the chieftaincy system in Ghana by a senior Ghanaian anthropologist.
  • Brobbey, S.A.  The Law of Chieftaincy in Ghana. Accra: Advanced Legal Publications, 2008.
    • A comprehensive handbook covering the laws governing chieftaincy for all of the ethnic groups in Ghana, incorporating customary arbitration, contempt of court, and judicial review by a retired Justice of the Supreme Court of Ghana.
  • Boahen, Adu, Emmanuel Akyeampong, Nancy Lawler, T.C. McCaskie and Ivor Wilks, eds.  The History of Ashant Kings and the Whole Country Itself.  New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2003.
    • A history written by Otumfuo, Nana Agyeman Prempeh I during his exile  (1896 – 1924) and compiled by the editors.
  • Falola, Toyin. ed. Ghana in Africa and the World.  Trenton N.J.: Africa World Press, Inc. 2003.
    • A very large volume of articles that takes up interpretations of history, ethnicity, religions, and precolonial and colonial economy.
      Falola is a major historian of Africa, especially Nigeria and Ghana who teaches at the University of Texas.
  • Falgayrettes-Leveau, Christiane and Owusu-Sarpong, Christianne, eds.   Ghana: Yesterday and Today.  Paris: Musee Dapper. 2003.
    • A massive museum catalog with thirteen scholarly articles, bibliography and index that accompany extraordinary large and beautiful photographs with explanation.
  • Konadu, Kwasi and Clifford C. Campbell, eds.  The Ghana Reader: History, Culture, Politics.  Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2016.
    • A very large collection of articles, some new and some are historical documents, compiled by two historians that provide a long range perspective on the scramble for Africa, colonial rule, independence, coups, and the “postcolony.
  • McCaskie, T. C. State and Society in Pre-Colonial Asante. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
    • A thorough history of the political-legal system of the pre-colonial Asante including the standards of citizenship, the procedures of the two branches of the legal system, and how one could lose citizenship.
  • Odotei, Irene K. and Albert K. Awedoba, eds. Chieftaincy in Ghana. Legon, Accra: Sub-Saharan Publishers, 2006. 
    • A comprehensive volume that views chieftaincy from numerous viewpoints, including concepts of identity, representations of chiefs in government structures, the judicial role of chiefs, women’s power, and more.
  • Rattray, R.S. Ashanti.  London: Oxford University Press, 1923.
    • A thorough description of Ashanti culture religious ceremonies, land tenure, drum language and the Golden Stool and the Silver Stool. R.S. Rattray was the first trained British anthropologist who represented the government.  He lived and worked with the Asante people for ten years.
  • Rattray, R.S. Ashanti Law and Constitution.  New York:  Negro Universities Press, 1969 (1911).
    • In this work focused on the relationship between the family, the clan, and the Constitution Rattray explains how they are integrated yet distinct.  This work also includes the histories of seven paramountcies which were their own states prior to the unification of Asante.  Also, included are discussions of thirteen laws and how they were applied.
  • Rathbone, Richard.  Nkrumah and the Chiefs.  Oxford: James Curry.  2000.
    • A carefully focused study of the period of transition from colonialism  to independence in which the British worked closely with Kwame Nkrumah to set up the new government. Because Nkrumah was deeply opposed to the chiefs, and to the opposing political party, he acted against them, as the author documents.
  • Salm, Steven J. and Toyin Falola. Culture and Customs of Ghana. Westport:       Greenwood Press, 2002.
    • A short view of contemporary Ghana, including customs and beliefs as well as significant history and attention to the economic resources.
  • Sarbah, John Mensah.  Fanti National Constitution.  London: Frank Cass and Co. Limited, 1906.
    • A Ghanaian educated as a barrister in England, Sarbah published this second book in an effort to persuade the British that they should respect the Ghanaian political-legal system and the rights of the Ghanaians to their land.  Though he never ceased in his efforts, he was not successful.
  • Stoeltje, Beverly J.  “Asante Queen mothers: A Study in Female Authority.”  In Queens, Queen Mothers, Priestesses, and Power, edited by Flora Kaplan, 41-71.  Johns Hopkins Press, 1997.
    • A comprehensive study of the role of the queen mother in the Asante society, focusing on her responsibilities and providing a close look at the Asantehemaa, Queen Mother of the Asante and the Offinsohemaa, a paramount queen mother.
  • Stoeltje, Beverly J. “Asante Queenmothers in a Postcolonial Society,” Research Review, New Series, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, vol. 19:2.  1-19.  2003.
    • Focused on the position of queen mother in the Asante political system, this study compares the system as it functioned in the precolonial era with contemporary conditions , identifying the influences that affect her power and authority.
  • Stoeltje, Beverly J. “Disentangling Modernity in Ghana: The Cosmopolitan Chief.” West African Review, Issue 22, 9-25.  2013.
    • Addressing the claim made by numerous sources that African needs new leadership, this study addresses the period of colonialism and early independence, and then argues that some contemporary chiefs are capable of providing leadership in certain contexts in Ghana.  The article follows the Juabenhene, Paramount Chief of Juaben, Nana OtuO Siriboe, documenting his contributions to his town and his region and national committees and institutions.  The article argues that he qualifies as a Cosmopolitan Chief.
  • Wilks, Ivor.  Asante in the Nineteenth Century.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,  1975.
    • A detailed study by a distinguished historian focusing on the early Asante and their development into a major state, examining the role of specific chiefs and queen mothers and the politics and policies that shaped the powerful Asante in the Nineteenth century.

Related Chapters

Matthias Schnettger: Dynastic Succession in an Elective Monarchy: The Hapsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire (See Chapter 7)

Aidan Norrie: Female Pharaohs in Ancient Egypt (See Chapter 29)

Theresa Earenfight & Kristen Geaman: Neither Heir nor Spare: Childless Queens and the Practice of Monarchy in Pre-Modern Europe (See Chapter 30)

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones: Harem Politics: Royal Women and Succession Crises in the Ancient Near East (c. 1400-300 BCE) (See Chapter 31)

Frank Jacob: Queen Min, Foreign Policy, and the Role of Female Leadership in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea (See Chapter 42)

Chapter 34

Deposition of Monarchs in Northern Kingdoms, 1300-1700


Depositions of kings and queens against their will were a common occurrence in nearly all European kingdoms. In the kingdoms of Northern Europe – Scotland, England, Sweden, Denmark and Norway – such depositions marked about a third of all changes of rulership between 1300 and 1700. Looking at such an end of a king- or queenship allows for insights into the relationship between realm and monarch as well as into the severe problems a monarch could face. Depositions are signs of such acute troubles that the sanctity of the royal crown and the widespread belief of a monarch by divine right were overcome, and the king or queen was removed from the throne, preferably without eliminating the monarchy at the same time. Deposing a monarch, especially without harming monarchical rule in general, needed special legitimations and forms which in turn formed political culture. Depositions showed that when the rule of a monarch became unacceptable there were always ways to exchange the ruling person for another. Monarchy viewed from this perspective appears as a collaborative project of the whole realm.

By Cathleen Sarti


Cathleen Sarti

Cathleen Sarti is a postdoctoral researcher on political culture in Northern Europe, ca. 1400-1700. Her doctoral thesis focused on depositions of monarchs in England, Scotland, Sweden, and Denmark-Norway. Her new research project asks about the role and influence of non-elite political counsellors. She is interested in political culture, history of political thought, new political history, cultural history, and methods and theories of the historical sciences. Her recent publications include an edited volumes on the Transnational Histories of the ‘Royal Nation’ (with Charlotte Backerra and Milinda Banerjee), as well as book chapters on early modern depositions, or history of political thought.

Bibliography

Sources

Beddard, Robert, ed. A Kingdom without a king: The journal of the provisional government in the Revolution of 1688. Oxford: Phaidon, 1988.

Brown, Keith M. U., ed. The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707. 2007-2014. http://www.rps.ac.uk.

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Annotated bibliography

  • Eisner, M. (2011) ‘Killing Kings. Patterns of Regicide in Europe, AD 600-1800’, The British Journal of Criminology, 51,3: 556-577.
    • This study analyses regicides, and exposes time periods in which being a king was as dangerous to your life as being a modern-day soldier in a war.
  • Friedeburg, R. von (ed.) (2004) Murder and Monarchy. Regicide in European History, 1300-1800, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
    • This volume combines several case studies of deposed European monarchs, and focusses especially on the before and after legitimation of killing a monarch.
  • Kantorowicz, E. H. (1957) The king’s two bodies: A study in medieval political theology, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
    • This is a ground-breaking book on the understanding of kingship and the difference between the body politic and the body natural of a monarch.
  • Schubert, E. (2005) Königsabsetzung im deutschen Mittelalter. Eine Studie zum Werden der Reichsverfassung, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht.
    • Ernst Schubert used depositions in the medieval Holy Roman Empire to show their influence on constitution and political development.
  • Turchetti, M. (2001) Tyrannie et tyrannicide de l’Antiquité à nos jours, Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
    • This book gives an overview of the development on the discours of right of resistance, especially the question of killing tyrants, as well as on the question, what is a tyrant?

Reading List (for classroom use)

  • Kossmann, E.H.; Mellink, A. F. (eds.) (1974) Texts concerning the revolt of the Netherlands, London, New York: Cambridge University Press.
    • A source collection about the conflict between the Netherlands and their monarch, Philipp II.
  • Zmora, H. (2001) Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the State in Europe, 1300-1800, London, New York: Routledge.
    • This short introduction to the state-building process focusses on the role of the nobility, and expands on how the triangle between state, monarch and nobility led to the formation of different political cultures within pre-modern kingdoms.
  • To Kill a King (UK, 2003)
    • Presented as a recounting of the friendship between Oliver Cromwell (Tim Roth) and Thomas Fairfax (Dougray Scott) set to the background of the British civil wars and the regicide of Charles I (Rupert Everett), this movie actually provides a great introduction to the different competing political ideas of the civil wars, embodied by Cromwell for the radicals and New Model Army, Fairfax for the moderate parlamentarians, Charles I as usual for himself and Lady Fairfax (Olivia Williams) as representative of noble royalists.

Links

  • BHO - British History Online
    • Indispensable website for all things British - digitalized sources for the period 1300-1800 as well as helpful subject guides on different topics and their sources.
  • Dansk biografisk Lexikon
    • Complete digitalisation of the DBL, the Danish national biography, at project runeberg.
  • danmarkshistorien.dk
    • This portal on Danish history is edited and curated by the history department of Aarhus University. The portal offers short introduction to topics of Danish history from antiquity to the present as well as digitalisation of sources, e.g. the letter of deposition to Christian II.
  • The Jacobite Heritage
    • This private curated website is nonetheless one of the best platforms to find sources concerning the Glorious Revolution and its aftermath online and in full text. All entries have a short comment and bibliographical information of the print version.

Keywords

Depositions; Northern Europe; Political Culture; Consensual Rule; Rulership; Kalmar Union

Denmark; England; Norway; Scotland; Sweden

Birger Magnusson (Sweden); Charles I (England, Scotland); Charles VIII (Sweden); Charles IX (Sweden); Christian I (Denmark, Norway, Sweden); Christian II (Denmark, Norway, Sweden); Christopher II (Denmark); Edward II (England); Edward III (England); Edward IV (England); Edward V (England); Erik of Pomerania (Denmark, Norway, Sweden); Erik XIV (Sweden); Gustav I Vasa (Sweden); Haakon VI Magnusson (Norway, Sweden); Henri III (France); Henri IV (France); Henry IV (England); Henry VI (England); Henry VII (England); James I (Scotland); James VI/I (Scotland, England); James II/VII (England, Scotland); Jane Grey (England); John II (Denmark, Norway, Sweden); Louis XVI (France); Magnus VII/IV (Norway, Sweden); Mary I Stuart (Scotland); Mary I Tudor (England); Oliver Cromwell; Richard II (England); Richard III (England); Robert II (Scotland); Sigismund of Sweden (Sweden); Valdemar III (Denmark); Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl; William III (England)

List of Depositions in Northern Europe, 1300-1700

Scotland

  • James I (1394-1437): James I from the house of Stewart became (uncrowned) king of Scotland in 1406 after the death of his father, Robert III. After spending the first 18 years of his reign in English imprisonment, James I returned to Scotland in 1424, and was crowned. Partly due to his long absence, and partly due to his centralising politics, James I spent most of his personal rule in conflict with diverse nobles of the realm, including his closest relatives. Combined with Scottish defeat at the English-held Roxburgh Castle, James I lost his political standing in Scotland. A conspiracy led by his uncle, Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, was responsible for his assassination at Perth (20/21 February 1437), but could not take over the government from James’s son and wife.
  • Mary I (1542-1587, dep. 1567): Mary I from the house of Stewart succeeded to the Scottish throne barely a week old in 1542. Furthermore, as great-grand-daughter of Henry VII, Mary had a claim to the English throne, and since 1558 married to the dauphin of France, Francis (II), became queen consort of France 1559-1560. As queen regnant of Scotland since 1560, Mary managed mostly to navigate Scottish politics, but behaved unqueenly in the aftermath of her second husband’s murder (February 1567) and was forced to abdicate by a radical minority of Scottish lords. After escaping from Scottish prison and losing a battle in the ensuing civil war between the „king’s men“ and the „queen’s men“, Mary fled to England where she spent the rest of her life imprisoned. In 1586, she was accused of being involved in conspiracies and treason against the English queen, Elizabeth I. Mary was put on trial, convicted, and executed in February 1587. Further Readings: Fraser, Antonia: Mary Queen of Scots. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1969; Wormald, Jenny: Mary, Queen of Scots. A Study in Failure. London: George Philip 1988.
  • James VII (1633-1701, dep. 1689): James VII of Scotland, also known as James II of England, followed his brother Charles II to the Scottish throne in 1685. Being a Catholic monarch over mostly Protestant subjects was one of the reasons why James was deposed during the events of the so-called Glorious Revolution. Most of these events occurred in England, and Scotland followed the English Declaration of Right with its Claim of Rights in April 1689. Moreover, since James never took the coronation oath in Scotland, this claim could refute his reign much more radical, and in fact, the Claim of Rights represents the only open deposition of an early modern monarch in Northern Europe.

England

  • Edward II (1284-1327): Edward II followed his father, Edward I, on the English throne after the latter’s death in 1307. Edward II was married to Isabella of France which later resulted in claims to the French throne by Edward’s successors and the Hundred Years’ War. The close relationship to favourites, particularly Piers Gaveston and, after Gaveston’s fall, exile, and execution, to both father and son, Hugh le Despenser (elder and younger), provoked the opposition of the magnates of the realm. The conflict between king with his favourites, and the magnates resulted in exile and execution of most favourites, civil war, and finally in the forced abdication by Edward II whereby Isabella of France played a pivotal role. After Isabella with Roger Mortimer and Prince Edward (III) invaded England, defeated the forces of the king, and imprisoned him, Edward II was forced to abdicate and his son, Edward III, crowned as English king.
  • Richard II (1367-1400, dep. 1399): Richard II of England from the House of Plantagenet succeeded to the throne at the age of 10 in 1377, after his father, Edward the Black Prince, had already died before his grandfather, Edward III. During his minority, council with members of the aristocracy and the royal family, most notably his paternal uncle, John of Gaunt, reigned in his stead. Conflicts during Richard’s reign resulted from several factions at court fighting for influence. During this battle, Richard who had aligned himself with one faction of courtiers, had to sacrifice his favorites, and rule in the 1390s together with his former rivals. However, in 1397, Richard had recovered enough to push aside his rivals and rule without council. Many of them were executed, and Richard’s reign was described as a tyranny following 1397. In 1399, his cousin, the son of John of Gaunt, Henry of Bolingbroke invaded England under the pretense to claim his inheritance. During the fight with Henry, Richard was imprisoned, and Henry claimed the throne as Henry IV. Richard was forced to abdicate, and remained imprisoned. He died, probably starved to death, in February of 1400.
  • Henry VI (1421-1471, dep. 1461 and 1471): Henry VI inherited the English throne before he reached his first birthday. During his reign, the war with France both reached its peak, and its end with England mostly pushed out of France (Hundred Years’ War). The difficult situation in foreign politics was mirrored in domestic politics with quarreling factions at court, uprising nobles, and finally civil war between supporters of the York and the Lancaster line going back to Edward III (Wars of the Roses). Since his early 30s, Henry suffered from mental illness, which supported Richard of York’s claim of misconduct in the war with France as well as misrule at home. During the civil wars, Henry was deposed after military defeat in 1461, and Richard’s son, Edward, took the throne as Edward IV. Henry was finally imprisoned. In 1470, he was for a short time restored due to factious struggle in the court of Edward IV. Henry’s second time on the throne, hardly more than a puppet of the Lancaster faction,  lasted about 6 Months. Edward IV managed to once again defeat the Lancaster section, Henry’s son was killed on the battlefield, and Henry died imprisoned under a once restored Edward IV.
  • Edward IV (1442-1483, dep. 1470): Edward IV, son of Richard of York, deposed during the Wars of the Roses Henry VI from the Lancaster line, and based his own claim to the throne on his descend from Edward III. In 1461, after military defeats of the Lancaster faction, Edward was crowned as Edward IV. The Lancaster faction continued to have support in the North of England, but was all in all too weak to cause further danger to the throne, especially with Henry VI imprisoned. Edward IV was deposed during the continued Wars of the Roses by the Lancasters when at his own court conflicts between different noble families arose. Nonetheless, already about six months after his deposition, Edward could once again defeat the Lancasters on the battlefield, and restore himself to the English throne which he then kept until his death in 1483.
  • Edward V (1470-c. 1483): Edward V, the son of Edward IV and heir apparent, succeeded to the throne of England after his father’s death on 9 April 1483. He was never coronated, and his short reign was dominated by his paternal uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who was protector during the minority of the king. On 19 May 1483, Edward V arrived in London and took his residence in the Tower. On 25 June 1483, Edward and his brother Richard were declared illegitimate by parliament, and consequently, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, inherited the throne as the next in line. During the summer of 1483, the two young boys, Edward and Richard, disappeared in the Tower and their fate remains unknown, although their unnatural death is highly suspected. They became known as the Princes in the Tower. 
  • Richard III (1485): Richard III, younger brother of Edward IV, came to the throne after having his nephews declared illegitimate in 1483. He was the last English king from the House of York and the Plantagenet dynasty. The end of his reign marks the end of the Wars of the Roses. His reign was controversial due to the competing claims of the Lancaster and the York line, but even more due to the circumstances and rumours that he had his nephews killed. The rebellion led by the Lancasters and represented by Henry Tudor together with his uncle Jasper Tudor in 1485 managed to gain enough momentum to defeat Richard III. On 22 August 1485, the two opposing armies under Richard III and Henry Tudor met at the Battle of Bosworth Field in which Richard III was killed (the last king of England killed in battle). Richard III was never formally deposed. Nonetheless, his opponent Henry Tudor used his death in battle to declare himself king of England, becoming Henry VII and first of the Tudor dynasty on the English throne.
  • Jane Grey (c. 1537-1554, dep. 1553): Lady Jane Grey was a great-granddaughter of Henry VII, and had therefore a claim to the English throne. When it became clear that the young king Edward VI (son of Henry VIII) might not live long enough to ensure dynastic succession, plans were hatched to prevent the succession of Edward’s half-sister, the catholic Mary Tudor. Especially a faction around John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, pushed towards changing the succession as already Henry VIII had done. Since the Tudor line did not offer any reliable succession (Edward’s half-sisters were declared illegitimate under Henry VIII, the Scottish line with Mary Stuart was excluded also under Henry VIII, and the line of Henry VIII’s younger sister Mary only had daughters), several marriages from the line of Mary with the faction around John Dudley were conducted. Jane Grey was the oldest to be married as such. She married Guildford Dudley. Even though the original plan was to hope for the (male) issue of these marriages, Edward’s health deteriorated quickly, and the passage in his testament “Lady Jane’s heirs” was changed to “Lady Jane and her heirs”, making Jane Grey heir apparent according to Edward’s testament. When Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, Dudley and the privy council kept it quiet, and tried to both ensure Jane’s succession and Mary’s imprisonment. Mary, however, was warned and fled to her estates in East Anglia. Jane was, nonetheless, proclaimed as queen on 10 July in London. From East Anglia, Mary organised a rebellion against this, and managed to gain popular support as well as the military edge. On 19 July, Mary was proclaimed queen in London, thereby deposing Jane Grey who was imprisoned in the Tower. Later rebellions against Mary’s rule, among them one with Jane Grey’s father as leading figure, finally forced Mary to execute Jane for treason, most probably because of fear that Jane Grey could be presented as alternative to her. Nonetheless, in death, Jane Grey became much more dangerous to Mary’s rule than she ever was in life due to John Foxe’s immortalisation as a Protestant martyr.
  • Charles I (1600-1649): The second son of James VI/I became heir apparent after the death of his brother Henry in 1612. His reign is one of the most discussed topics in British history, and usually separated in his early reign (1625-1629), personal rule (1629-1639), and the British Civil Wars (1639-1649). His deposition is a direct result of the chaos of the civil wars, especially of the second British Civil War from 1648 and 1649. During these wars, a radicalisation of groups and ideas led to the spread of new ideas and possibilities when faced with the problem of a monarch refusing to negotiate anything. In the end, a radical core from the New Model Army pushed for the deposition and execution of Charles I who had in their opinion become “that man of blood”, i.e. responsible for at least the second civil war. The majority of the political elite did not have any other solution, although they showed their non-compliance with the New Model Army by leaving the political stage in winter 1648/49. During a trial in January 1649, Charles I was accused of treason and public enemy to the English people, and he was executed on 30 January 1649.  
  • James II (1633-1701, dep. 1689): James II of England, also known as James VII of Scotland, followed his brother Charles II to the English throne in 1685. Being a Catholic monarch over mostly Protestant subjects was one of the reasons why James was deposed during the events of the so-called Glorious Revolution. In December 1688, James and his family went into exile to France, leaving political and social unrest in England. The English Convention Parliament took this as reason to declare the throne vacant, and offering it to James’s daughter, Mary and her husband, William III of Orange in the Declaration of Right in April 1689, effectively deposing James II.

Denmark

  • Christopher II (1276-1332, dep. 1326): Christopher was the younger brother of the Danish king Eric VI who died without issue. Even though Christopher was already excluded from the throne due his opposition against Eric VI earlier, he was elected to the throne in 1320. For his election by the Danish magnates, Christopher had to sign an electoral capitulation, the first one in Danish history. At the time of his reign, Denmark suffered from high debts due to several wars. Christopher was therefore indebted to German and Danish magnates, making them the real power in the realm. Attempts to gain power back into royal hands and further expansive wars led to the opposition of the magnates, and finally to the deposition of Christopher II and his replacement with the 12-year-old Valdemar, Duke of Schleswig and ward of the greatest debtor of Christopher II, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, Gerhard III. Nonetheless, due to the continued power struggle between the Danish and German magnates, Christopher regained the Danish throne in 1329. His second reign was, however, mostly dominated by his debtors and even partly spend imprisoned. He died as Danish king in 1332.
  • Valdemar III (1314-1364, dep. 1329): Valdemar was the Duke of Schleswig as Valdemar V since 1325. He was drawn as a (minor) rival king into the struggle for power between Christopher II and the Danish and German magnates in the 1320s. His election as king of Denmark in 1326 was also the deposition of Christopher II. His deposition 3 years later also was caused by this power struggle in which Christopher II regained the Danish throne once again. Valdemar was compensated with fiefs and remained the only Danish king who did not use his claim to the throne after his deposition. He returned to Schleswig where he ruled until his death.
  • Eric VII of Pomerania (1381/82-1459, dep. 1439): Eric VII of Denmark was the first king of the Kalmar Union. Due to a dynastic crisis among the royal families of all Scandinavian kingdoms, he was de jure king under his grand-aunt Margaret since 1396 in Denmark. After her death in 1412, Eric VII ruled also de facto. The power struggle between Danish magnates and the crown continued under his rule, and escalated over the question of his successor. The childless Eric wanted to install his cousin Bogislaw IX, Duke of Pomerania while the Danish magnates preferred someone without an own power base in the region. In the end, Eric left Denmark for Gotland, and the Danish council deposed him and elected his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria. Eric remained on Gotland where he fought with piracy against the Baltic trade. In 1449, he succeeded Bogislaw as duke of Pomerania where he died in 1459.
  • Christian II (1481-1559, dep. 1523): Christian was the last king of the Kalmar Union which came to an end after his depositions in all three Scandinavian realms. In Denmark, he followed his father John to the throne in 1513 after already being vice-roy in Norway since 1506. His peasant- and burgher-friendly policies together with his ignorance of the Danish clergy and aristocratic council led to several conflicts with the Danish elite. Furthermore, his wars against Sweden to realise his claim to the Swedish throne were costly, and his finance and economic policies threatended traditional allies of the aristocratic trade, the Hanseatic League. His preference for foreign and often base-born counsellors was a further reason for aristocratic opposition against him. In 1522, a majority of the Danish population, esp. in Jutland, rebelled against him, and – due to the electoral form of monarchy in Denmark – renounced their allegiance and offering it to Christian’s uncle, Frederick of Holstein. In April 1523, Christian left with a few of his supporters Denmark to win foreign support in the Low Countries and elsewhere, which meant, however, that Frederick and the rebells now had free reign. The coronation of Frederick was at the same time the official deposition of Christian II. From his exile, and later imprisonment in Denmark, Christian and his children continued to play a role in Danish politics, but he never regained the throne.

Norway

  • Eric III of Pomerania (1381/82-1459, dep. 1442): Eric III of Norway was the first king of the Kalmar Union. Due to a dynastic crisis among the royal families of all Scandinavian kingdoms, he was de jure king under his grand-aunt Margaret since 1389 in Norway. After her death in 1412, Eric VII ruled also de facto. The power struggle between the Danish and Swedish magnates and Eric did not include Norway in the beginning. However, due to the continued absence of Eric from Norway after his depositions in Denmark and Sweden in 1439, and pressure on the Norwegian council from the other two realms, Eric was also deposed in Norway in 1442, and Christopher of Bavaria was recognized as king.
  • Charles I (1408-1470, dep. 1450): After the death of Christopher of Bavaria, the Swedish council elected Karl Knutsson as king of Sweden. In 1449, the Norwegian council followed the Swedish election even though the Danish council had elected Christian of Oldenburg. Charles I (as he was numbered in Norway) was crowned in Norway, in Trondheim, on 20 November of 1449. However, Christian of Oldenburg tried to enforce his claim as Kalmar Union king also to the throne of Sweden and Norway, and Charles had to concede the Norwegian throne to him in 1450.
  • Christian II (1481-1559, dep. 1524): Christian was the last king of the Kalmar Union which came to an end after his depositions in all three Scandinavian realms. He was vice-roy in Norway since 1506, and became king both in Denmark and Norway after the death of his father John in 1513. In the beginning of his reign, his close relationship  with the Norwegian arch-bishop Erik Valkendorf and his peasant- and burgherfriendly policies led to a broad acceptance in Norway. When Christian II had to fight against uprisings in Sweden since 1520 and in Denmark since 1521, Norway kept quiet. And the council and population continued to support him even after Christian had to go into exile in spring 1523. Only in August of 1524, after the new Danish king and the councils put more pressure on Norway, did the Norwegian council renounce their allegiance to Christian and accepted Frederick I as king of Norway. Even though, when Christian finally gained enough support to sail with a merchant army to Scandinavia, landing in Norway first, he was immediately hailed as king in Oslo by the Norwegians. However, since his army was reduced by a storm, and he did not manage to capture important holdings of the Danes in Norway, this last attempt to regain his thrones failed. Christian II was imprisoned in Denmark, but continued to play a role in Scandinavian politics as a political alternative until his death in 1559.

Sweden

  • Birger Magnusson (1280-1321, dep. 1318): Birger Magnusson, son of the Swedish king Magnus III, inherited the throne when he was 10 years old. His younger brothers, Erik and Valdemar, however, tried both to establish more independent realms in Sweden which eventually led to civil war between the three brothers. In the so-called Håtuna Games in 1308, an feast at the royal estate in Uppland, Birger was imprisoned by his brothers, and only released after political pressure from the Danish king. Afterwards, Birger was nominally king, and the civil war between the brothers continued. In another feast, the Nyköping Banquet in 1317, Birger could revenge his imprisonment when he captured Erik and Valdemar. The younger brothers were probably starved to death which led their supporters to oust Birger from the realm in 1318. His son was executed in Sweden, and Erik‘s three-year old son Magnus (IV) was elected as new king in 1319.
  • Magnus IV (1316-1374) and Haakon (1340-1380) (r. 1319/1362-1364): Magnus IV of Sweden was elected to the throne of Sweden after the civil wars between his uncles Birger Magnusson (king of Sweden, dep. 1318) and Valdemar and his father Erik, and after the exile or deaths of them. He was also hereditary king of Norway due to his maternal grandfather being the Norwegian king Haakon V. In 1331, Magnus came of age and ruled both realms in a personal union. This personal union led to some conflicts, particularly with the Norwegian council, after Magnus was only crowned in Stockholm for both realms. These conflicts between king and Norwegian council were resolved in 1343 with Magnus’ younger son, Haakon, becoming king in Norway (despite Norway as heritage monarchy having primogeniture while Sweden was an elective realm), and Magnus’s older son, Erik, becoming king of Sweden after Magnus’ death, thus ending the personal union. Since Erik died in 1359 before his father, in the end, this did not work out. In 1360, the Danish king declared war against Sweden and re-conquered Scania which Magnus had claimed a few decades earlier due to the weakness of the Danish realm at this time. This war which led to severe losses of Swedish territory, finally led to the deposition of Magnus and his co-regent Haakon in 1364 in which Albert of Mecklenburg (to whom parts of the Swedish council fled and asked for support) ousted Magnus and Haakon from Sweden. Both Magnus and Haakon continued to rule over Norway, for the moment ending all personal unions between the Scandinavian realms.
  • Albert (c. 1338-1412, dep. 1389): Albert of Mecklenburg-Schwerin supported the Swedish rebells against the kings Magnus IV and Haakon, and with his army ousted them from the Swedish realm. In exchange, he was elected king in 1364. However, support for the ousted kings was still strong in Sweden, and the first years of Albert’s reign were characterised by civil war. In the on-going conflicts between several nobles and land-owners of the realm, Albert was most of the time more of a puppet king. Nonetheless, his policies of establishing German officials led to severe resistance, especially in Western Sweden. Finally, when the Scandinavian political situation had changed, some of the dissatisfied nobles turned to Margaret of Denmark and Norway for help against Albert. With her armies, Albert was defeated in February 1389, and Margaret elected as foremost woman of the realm (never coronated as queen), forming the basis for the Kalmar Union. Albert was first imprisoned but later released (1395) and returned to Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Unlike most of all other deposed Swedish kings, Albert formally abdicated in 1405.
  • Eric XIII of Pomerania (1381/82-1459, dep. 1434, 1439): Eric XIII of Sweden was the first king of the Kalmar Union. Due to a dynastic crisis among the royal families of all Scandinavian kingdoms, he was de jure king under his grand-aunt Margaret since 1396 in Sweden. After her death in 1412, Eric VII ruled also de facto. His reign started the long-term struggle of parts of the Swedish society against the Kalmar Union, even more against Danish rule. In 1434, Erik was deposed for the first time in Sweden due to the rebellion from and in Dalarna under Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, but could restore his rule after the assassination of Engelbrekt in 1436. The general problem of Danish rule, and of the role and influence of the Hanseatic League remained though, and in 1439 – combined with the dynastic conflict in Denmark, Erik was also deposed in Sweden. Still, the idea of the Kalmar Union prevailed at first, and Sweden elected together with Denmark Christopher of Bavaria as union king.
  • Charles VIII (1408-1470, dep. 1457, 1465): Charles from the house of Bonde was a member of the Swedish council since 1434 (under Erik of Pomerania and Christopher of Bavaria). During the rebellion of Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, he was formal regent of the realm, de facto being interim ruler until Erik of Pomerania could once again restore his influence. Under the reign of Christopher, Charles kept a separate court in his territories in Finland from which he also conducted an own foreign policy. Thus, in 1448 after the death of Christopher, Charles was the prime candidate as Swedish king, and he was elected by the council in 1448. However, the Danish king Christian I had due to the conditions of the Kalmar Union also a claim to the throne. The wars with Denmark as well as the disagreements between the Swedish nobility, church, and magnates led to growing dissatisfaction with Charles and hence to his deposition in 1457. In 1464, Charles could regain the throne after Christian I proved to be not more able to keep any kind of consensus among the Swedes. Nonetheless, the conflict – this time between council and archbiship – remained, and since Charles VIII could also not resolve it, he was once again deposed in 1465. In 1467, this conflict was mostly resolved, and Charles could once again return from his exile. He then ruled for the rest of his life in close alliance with the council.
  • Christian I (1426-1481, dep. 1464): After the early death of Christopher of Bavaria, Christian from the house of Oldenburg was elected to the throne of Denmark. Under the terms of the Kalmar Union, he should have also been elected to the thrones of Norway and Sweden, but they already elected a rival king, Charles VIII. Even though Christian I could realise his claim to the Norwegian throne in 1450, Sweden remained loyal to Charles VIII until 1457. Due to internal conflicts among the Swedish nobility and magnates, Charles VIII was deposed, and Christian I installed as Swedish king, for a short time being king of all three Scandinavian realms. In 1464, the anti-union faction once again called back Charles VIII and deposed Christian I. Despite several attempts, Christian could never regain the Swedish throne, but he remained king of Norway and Denmark until his death in 1481.
  • John II (1455-1513, dep. 1501): John II of Sweden, also known as Hans of Denmark, was one of the kings during the Kalmar Union. As this union was already in question in Sweden since the 1430s, and the foremoste Danish monarchs were consequently often deposed, John also did not automatically inherit the Swedish throne after the death of his father Christian I in 1481. Even though a meeting in Halmstad in 1483 with all three Scandinavian councils should have ensured the election to all union thrones, the Swedish council did not turn up, thus delaying John’s election in Sweden. The Swedish regent, Sten Sture the Elder (since 1470) managed to delay electing John to the throne until a foreign conflict with Russia under Ivan III put more pressure on him. John could use Sture’s weakened position, and (together with the Swedish union-party) realised his claim to the throne in 1497. However, after his alliance with Ivan III and his promises of Swedish territory were revealed, the council once again turned against him, Sten Sture the Elder (who was still an important member of the council) and a few others denounced their allegiance, and the rest soon followed. In 1501, the Danish forces were ousted from the Swedish realm once more. However, the general conflict remained unsolved, and Sweden formally a part of the Kalmar Union.
  • Christian II (1481-1559, dep. 1523): Christian was the last king of the Kalmar Union which came to an end after his depositions in all three Scandinavian realms. In Sweden, he could realise his claim to the throne in autumn of 1520 after the death in battle of his rival, the regent Sten Sture the Younger. Sture’s widow, Christina Gyllenstierna, who held Stockholm for a long time over the summer of 1520 after the Swedish council had already surrendered, finally open the doors for promises of amnesty. However, after his coronation on 4 November 1520 in Stockholm, Christian together with the Swedish archbishop Gustav Trolle (a pro-Unionist) accused and executed more than 80 people from the opposition, including two bishops and several nobles and burghers. Many noble women were sent as prisoners to Denmark. This event, known as Stockholm Bloodbath, led to the unification of Sweden against Christian II, and a young men from the lower nobility, Gustav Vasa, brought together the opposition. He was chosen as regent in 1521, and under his leadership, Sweden could in the next two years expel the Danish forces. The coronation of Gustav Vasa to Swedish king on 6 June of 1523 marks the end of the Kalmar Union, and the beginning of the modern Swedish kingdom.
  • Erik XIV (1533-1577, dep. 1569): Erik was the only child of Gustav I’s first marriage with Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg. From the second marriage of Gustav with a Swedish noble, he had ten half-siblings, eight who reached adulthood. The three sons of this second marriage all received already during Gustav’s lifetime huge fiefdoms in the realm which should be subordinated under the crown. However, after Gustav’s death in 1560, the oldest half-brother of Erik, John (III), more and more conducted his own foreign policies, in particular with Poland which whom Sweden struggled for influence in Livonia. Aside from the wars in Livonia, Sweden also was at war with Denmark since 1563, forcing Erik to fight on two fronts. During these times of war, conflicts between Erik, his half-brothers, and the council arose, especially over the question of the autonomy of the fiefdoms, and over Erik’s trust in non-noble counsellors. In 1567, Erik suffered more and more from bouts of madness, once killing several imprisoned nobles and fleeing into the woods. In 1568 when he married his non-noble mistress officially, making her queen of Sweden, his half-brothers and parts of the magnates rebelled against him, and finally deposed him officially in the parliament of 1569. He was imprisoned since September 1568, and died under suspicious circumstances in 1577, probably of arsenic poisoning. His oldest half-brother, John III, was elected as king of Sweden.  
  • Sigismund (1566-1632, dep. 1599): Sigismund was the only son of John III and Catherine Jagellonica of Poland. In 1587, Sigismund was elected to the throne of Poland-Lithuania, opening the possibility for a Swedish-Polish personal union after his inheritance of the Swedish throne. Since Sweden was a mostly Lutheran realm, and Poland-Lithuania mostly Catholic, this idea was contested from both sides. When Sigismund inherited the Swedish throne in 1592, his paternal uncle, Charles (IX), therefore rallied the clergy as well as huge parts of the population to a church meeting in Uppsala in 1593 where Sweden was declared Lutheran, and it was prohibited for a Catholic to hold office. Although Sigismund accepted this declaration, he immediately afterwards installed Catholic nobles as his governors in Stockholm and elsewhere. Furthermore, due to his duties as king of Poland-Lithuania (and his obligations to the Polish-Lithuanian parliament), Sigismund only spend a year in Sweden after his inheritance (1592/93), and once again a few months in 1598, when Charles pushed for more influence and managed to bring large parts of the population on his side. In the end, Sigismund lost a battle against Charles and left for Poland-Lithuania, leaving the Swedish conflicts unresolved. Consequently, the Swedish parliament deposed him in 1599, and Charles became regent though not king (he accepted the crown in 1604). Until the assassination of Gustav III in 1792, Sigismund’s was the last deposition in Sweden.

Related Chapters

Charlotte Backerra: Personal Union, Composite Monarchy, and “Multiple Rule” (See Chapter 6)

Matthias Range: Dei Gratia and the “Divine Right of Kings”: Divine Legitimization or Human Humility? (See Chapter 8)

Joanne Paul with Valerie Schutte: The Tudor Monarchy of Counsel and the Growth of Reason of State (See Chapter 39)

Chapter 35

Exercising Authority and Exerting Influence


“Exercising Authority and Exerting Influence”, covers considerable temporal territory to shed light upon the activity of a multiplicity of actors within the wider framework of monarchy. Applying cross-disciplinary thinking and methodologies, the chapters combine to scrutinize the mechanisms of sovereignty and legitimacy. In tackling the ways in which monarchies across time have sought to exercise authority and exert influence, the contributors to this section confront, problematize, and elaborate upon pivotal themes raised across the entirety of this collection – themes such as power, law, religion, the use of ceremony, display and representation, and dynasties, courts, and realms.

The seven essays contained in “Exercising Authority and Exerting Influence” re-calibrate the ways in which scholars perceive the exercise of authority and influence across a range of disciplines, time periods and geographies. “Exercising Authority and Exerting Influence” advances our understanding of the importance of masculinities and the sexualities of male monarchs and kings consort from the Crusader states of the Latin east to the European kingdoms of England, Sweden and the early modern period of pre-Revolutionary France. The chapters examine how the maintenance of ‘proper’ gender order defined the complementary roles of the king and queen, providing security and continuity to realms during times of upheaval and transformation. New perspectives on the importance of the ties that bound royal dynasties to their aristocracies are worthy and important contributions to this section as are those dealing with the importance of targeted advice and sound counsel to ruling, aspirant, and indeed declining dynasties in a variety of geopolitical contexts.

By Zita Rohr


Zita Rohr

Dr Zita Rohr is a specialist historian of the late medieval and early modern periods and has published widely in the field of gendered political and diplomatic history of this rich, diverse, and turbulent period of European political and diplomatic transformation. She is an Honorary Research Fellow at Macquarie University in the Department of Modern History, Politics and International Relations, and course convenor and lecturer in early modern history at the University of New South Wales. In 2004, Zita was admitted to the Ordre des Palmes Académiques (Chevalier) for her contribution to French education and culture. She is a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.

A gender conscious political historian with a longue durée approach, her research focuses upon the varied geopolitics and geographies of the Mediterranean, the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy (insular and peninsular), and England. In 2016, she published a monograph based upon her PhD thesis with Palgrave Macmillan, Yolande of Aragon, Family and Power 1381-1442: The Reverse of the Tapestry and has published, with Lisa Benz, an edited collection of essays Queenship, Gender and Reputation in the Medieval and Early Modern West, 1060-1600, again with Palgrave Macmillan. Zita and Lisa are reprising their collaboration with a new publishing project, Tales of Fire and Ice: Queenship, Female Agency, and the Role of Advice in Game of Thrones and A Song of Ice and Fire, scheduled to appear in print to coincide with the final series of Game of Thrones in 2019.

Her current research project, “Family Matters: A Gendered History of the Genesis of the Modern State”, will transform current ideas about the making of the early modern state, inaugurating an innovative gendered political history demonstrating that, far from being marginalized, pre-modern royal women were key nodes in early modern government, politics and diplomacy. The gendered history that it will produce will communicate the pervasiveness of female political agency in the emergence of territorial monarchies the geopolitical winners in early modern Europe, and the progenitors of the modern state.

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Idem. Unpublished Conference Paper, “No Job for a Man: The Position of Royal Favourite During the Reign of Charles VII”, The Royal Studies Network Kings and Queens Conference 7: “Ruling Sexualities, Gender, and the Crown”, July 10, 2018, The University of Winchester, UK.

Silleras-Fernández, Núria. Power, Piety, and Patronage in Late Medieval Queenship: Maria de Luna. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

Idem. Chariots of Ladies: Francesc Eiximenis and the Court Culture of Medieval and Early Modern Iberia. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2015.

Related Chapters

Elena Woodacre: Understanding the Mechanisms of Monarchy (See Chapter 1)

Chris Jones: Introduction (See Chapter 2)

Lucinda Dean: Introduction (See Chapter 11)

Russell Martin: Introduction (See Chapter 24)

Chapter 36

Male Consorts and Royal Authority in the Crusader States


The Medieval Latin Christian polities founded in the Levant during the crusades repeatedly experienced the rise of women to the highest positions of political power as heiresses to these isolated states. Husbands for these heiresses had to be sought from western-Europe to provide the military leadership that these realms required to survive. However, these men were outsiders to their new kingdoms, and the process of their selection created a myriad of questions as to the validity of their reigns, for it was from their wives that their legitimacy as monarchs derived. It was imperative for these king-consorts to effectively establish their authority in their new realms, but consorts were caught between the conflicting needs to assert their own independent authority as monarchs and to work with their wives to govern their new kingdom. To overcome challenges to their kingship, these male consorts frequently employed similar techniques to bolster their own royal authority. However, while their different circumstances made their success variable, few could afford to rule independently as monarchs in their own right, and they consistently needed the support and presence of their wives to legitimise their position.

By Stephen Donnachie


Stephen Donnachie

Stephen Donnachie received his PhD in medieval history from Swansea University. He has taught medieval and early-modern history at Swansea University, and has acted as editorial staff for the Royal Studies Journal. His research interests include the crusades, the history of the Latin East, and the medieval Mediterranean world.

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Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades, vol. 3, The Kingdom of Acre. London: Penguin, 2002.

Schein, Sylvia. “Women in Medieval Colonial Society: The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century.” In Gendering the Crusades, edited by Susan B. Edgington and Sarah Lambert, 140-53. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2001.

Woodacre, Elena. “Questionable Authority: Female Sovereigns and the Consorts in Medieval and Renaissance Chronicles.” In Authority and Gender in Medieval and Renaissance Chronicles, edited by Juliana Dresvina and Nichola Sparks, 367-406. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012.

Woodacre, Elena. “The Kings Consort of Navarre: 1284-1512.” In The Man Behind the Queen: Male Consorts in History, edited by Charles Beem and Miles Taylor, 11-31. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2014.

Annotated bibliography

  • Beem, C.; Miles, T. (eds.) (2014) The Man Behind the Queen: Male Consorts in History, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
    • This collection of articles examines the roles and actions of different male consorts in European monarchies from the medieval to modern periods. It offers a good overview of the different problems that male consorts experienced and how such consorts can be studied.
  • Hamilton, B. (2000) The Leper King and his Heirs, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    • This is the most comprehensive study of the history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem in the late-twelfth century, focusing upon the reigns of Baldwin IV and the accession of Guy de Lusignan and Sibylla. It contains a thorough analysis of the challenges that confronted the crown in relation to its heiresses and consorts at a crucial point in its existence.
  • Hamilton, B. (1978) ‘Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem, 1100-1190‘ in Medieval Women (ed.) Derek Baker, Oxford: Blackwell, 143-174.
    • This is, at present, the only collective study of the queens of the kingdom of Jerusalem in the twelfth century. It explores the different challenges encountered by the women who reigned as queens in Jerusalem, and their different approaches to ruling.
  • Hodgson, N. (2007) Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative, Woodbridge: Boydell,
  • Narratives of crusading have often overlooked women, placing them into a minor role within the medieval movement. This work explores the perception and role of women within crusading narratives as well as the history of the Latin East, and it contains some excellent sections exploring women as queens, consorts, mothers, and wives, including their relationships with their husbands.
  • Kantorowicz, E. (1957) The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
    • This is a ground-breaking book on the understanding of kingship and the difference between the body politic and the body natural of a monarch in the Middle Ages.
  • Lambert, S. (1997) ‘Queen or Consort: Rulership and Politics in the Latin East, 1118-1228‘ in Queens and Queenship in Medieval Europe (ed.) Anne J. Duggan, Woodbridge: Boydell, 151-169.
  • This article examines the changes in the political role of queens within the kingdom of Jerusalem, assessing the effectiveness of their rule in the twelfth century and how that steadily diminished into the thirteenth.
  • Mayer, H. E. (1989) ̔Angevins versus Normans: The New Men of King Fulk of Jerusalem,‘ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 133: 1-25.
  • This article explores ho the first king-consort of Jerusalem, Fulk of Anjou, established his own Angevin supporters in power and how this in turn brought about a baronial rebellion from the native Jerusalemite barons.
  • Mayer, H. E. (1985) ‘The Succession to Baldwin II of Jerusalem: English Impact on the East,’ Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 39: 139-47.
    • This study explores the inheritance issues surrounding the succession of the first female monarch in the Latin East, and how examples of contemporary female succession in the Latin West may have influenced it.
  • Naus, J. (2016) Constructing Kingship: The Capetian Monarchs of France and the Early Crusades, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
    • This insightful study explores how the act of crusading became an integral part of western medieval kingship over the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries within the context of the kings of France.

Reading List (for classroom use)

  • Bertelli, S. (2001) The King's Body: The Sacred Rituals of Power in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
    • A general study exploring the idea of the king’s body and its importance for sacred rituals and political power. It offers a good start for discussions of the importance of symbolism and rituals in the practice of kingship.
  • Greilsammer, M. (1995) Le Livre au Roi. Paris: L’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
    • One of the earliest legal texts produced in the Latin East, it was commissioned under the reign of a male consort, and details the rights and responsibilities of the crown. The context of its production and the laws it contains are useful for discussion of the fears and needs of medieval society in the Latin East.

Links

  • Revised Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani Database - http://crusades-regesta.com
    • An online database of all the charters, legal documents, and letters that were composed between 1098 and 1291 in the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Cyprus and Cilician Armenia, the principality of Antioch and the counties of Edessa and Tripoli, or were addressed to individuals in those polities.

Keywords

Baldwin II of Jerusalem; Fulk V of Anjou; Melisende of Jerusalem; Amalric of Jerusalem; Baldwin IV of Jerusalem; Guy de Lusignan; Sibylla of Jerusalem; Conrad of Montferrat; Henry II of Champagne; Aimery de Lusignan; John of Brienne; Maria of Jerusalem; Isabella I of Jerusalem; Isabella II of Jerusalem; Frederick II Hohenstaufen; Bohemond II of Antioch; Alice of Antioch; Alice of Champagne; Constance of Antioch; Raymond of Poitiers; Philip of Antioch; Aimery of Limoges; Baldwin of Marash; Reynald of Marash; Geoffrey de Lusignan; Hugh Martin; Milo Breban; Villain d’Aulnay; Thierry de Dendermonde; Thierry d’Orgue; Aymar de Lairon; Guy Brisebarre; William of Buris; William of Tyre; Peter II of Aragon; Ralph of Soissons; Philip of Habsburg; Frederick I of Sweden; Robert de Craon; William IX of Aquitaine; Humphrey IV of Toron; William of Valence; Joscelin III of Edessa; Hubert Nepos; Henry de Canelli; Ansaldo Buonvicino; Pagan of Haifa; Balian of Ibelin; Reynald of Sidon; Frederick VI of Swabia; Richard I of England; Philip II of France; Frederick I Barbarossa; Leopold V of Austria

Jerusalem; Antioch; Cyprus; Champagne; Anjou; Cilician-Armenia; Poitou; Acre; Adelon; Arsuf; Bethlehem; Caesarea; Tyre; Latakiah; Aleppo; Navarre; Hebron; Marash

Crusades; Latin East; Consort

Related Chapters

Hélder Carvalhal: Kingship and Masculinity in Renaissance Portugal (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries) (See Chapter 18)

Paul Webster: Faith, Power and Charity: Personal Religion and Kingship in Medieval England (See Chapter 12)

Derek Whaley: From a Salic Law to the Salic Law: The Creation and Re-Creation of the Royal Succession System of Medieval France (See Chapter 26)

Genealogy of Baldwin II of Jerusalem

Genealogy of Baldwin II of Jerusalem

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Map of Crusader States

Map of Crusader States

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Chapter 37

Kings and Nobles on the Fringe of Christendom: A comparative perspective on Monarchy and Aristocracy in the European Middle Ages


This chapter on the relationship between kingship and nobility focuses on the kingdoms of Castile-León and Sweden during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Though the cases studied demonstrate structural similarities, they also display the cohesion among European nobilities in general in the period, when formation as a social and political class was still in process. The need for magnates to seek new means to exert influence beyond the local sphere was a preoccupation felt in many European realms. The recurrent periods of royal minority in Sweden and Castile were times when the nobility had the opportunity to implement their own political agendas, and rebellions broke out at times when the reasonable limits of monarchical authority were perceived to have been overstepped. While often seen as disruptive, rebellious movements and aristocratic revolts in medieval Europe sometimes contributed to stressing the importance of representation and in some contexts to the shaping of the idea of a community of the realm. In the end, the distance between these two cases and the distinctive character of the respective historiographies allows for the discovery of previously unfamiliar parallels between them.

By Kim Bergqvist


Kim Bergqvist

Kim Bergqvist (b. 1986) is a PhD candidate in the Department of History at Stockholm University. He currently teaches at DIS Stockholm. His research is centred on political, cultural, and comparative history, medieval history writing, and the history of gender and emotions, with a particular focus on the high and late Middle Ages in Scandinavia and the Iberian Peninsula. His work has appeared in The Medieval Chronicle.

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Related Chapters

Manuela Santos Silva: Regal Power and the Royal Family in a Thirteenth-Century Iberian Legislative Programme (See Chapter 5)

Emily Ward: Child kings and guardianship in North-Western Europe c.1050-c.1250 (See Chapter 32)

Cathleen Sarti: Deposition of Monarchs in Northern Kingdoms (See Chapter 34)

Joanne Paul with Valerie Schutte: The Tudor Monarchy of Counsel and the Growth of Reason of State (See Chapter 39)

Chapter 38

For Better or for Worse:
Royal Marital Sexuality as Political Critique in Late Medieval Europe


This chapter discusses how sexuality was used in political critique in late medieval Europe. In the Middle Ages the union of the king and the queen symbolized the social contract, and the royal marriage represented the bond between the king and his subjects. Negative descriptions of a royal marriage could therefore be used to signal discontent with a king’s reign. The chapter analyses a number of late medieval texts in order to expose reoccurring critical discourses that built on perceptions of gender and sexuality. We argue that sexual matters were used deliberately to highlight fundamental shortcomings in how a country was governed. A king’s inability to be sexually active indicated a lack of masculine authority. Kingly masculinity and dominance were closely linked and an effeminate king was an unthinkable proposition. In addition, since the king and queen were regarded as a unit, his behaviour impacted how she was judged. If the king was believed to lack masculine dominance and to be unable to control his wife, this could unleash the dangerous power that lay within queenship itself. The queen could be become unruly and adulterous. The incapable king and his unruly queen represented a dysfunctional rulership and failed regency.

By Christine Ekholst and Henric Bagerius


Christine Ekholst and Henric Bagerius

Henric Bagerius

Henric Bagerius received his Ph.D. in history from the University of Gothenburg in 2009. He is an associate professor of history at Örebro University, Sweden. He has published extensively on gender and sexuality in Iceland and Sweden. He is currently working on a monograph on the dress reform movement in late nineteenth-century Sweden.

Christine Ekholst

Christine Ekholst received her Ph.D. in history from Stockholm University in 2009. She has taught at several Canadian universities and is now an assistant professor of medieval history at Uppsala University, Sweden. Her research focuses on sexuality, gender, legal history and the history of crime. She is currently researching gender and crime in late medieval Swedish towns.

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Annotated bibliography

  • Lisa Benz St John, Three Medieval Queens: Queenship and the Crown in Fourteenth Century England. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
    • This book compares three medieval English queen consorts and explores how these three queens used their power and authority. It provides insight into how queens managed their households and how their status changed with motherhood.
  • Joanna Laynesmith, The Last Medieval Queens: English Queenship 1445–1503. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004
    • Joanna Laynesmith’s book was one of the first comparative analyses of English queenship. It provides insight into how late medieval queenship in England was constructed and understood. It also provides a gendered analysis of the queens’ roles and agency.
  • Theresa Earenfight, ‘Without the Persona of the Prince: Kings, Queens and the Idea of Monarchy in Late Medieval Europe.’ Gender & History 19 (2007): 1–21.
    • Earenfight’s analysis of the royal couple as a unit dispels ideas of the medieval queen as non-political and uninteresting in political history. Her article emphasises that the king did not rule alone and that scholars must take other actors, in particular the queen, into consideration when analysing a particular reign.
  • Cynthia Herrup, ‘The King’s Two Genders.’ Journal of British Studies 45 (2006): 493–510. 
    • Herrup builds her analysis on Ernst Kantorowicz’ pivotal work The King’s Two Bodies while arguing that the early modern rulers needed to embody both feminine and masculine characteristics. Her article is important because it provides a gendered perspective on rulership.
  • Katherine J. Lewis, Kingship and Masculinity in Late Medieval England. London: Routledge, 2013.
    • Katherine Lewis analyses the reigns of Henry V and Henry VI. Lewis’ book is important because it is one of few works that directly addresses kingly masculinity and discusses the role of masculinity in late medieval English rulership.
  • W. M Ormrod, ‘The Sexualities of Edward II.’ In The Reign of Edward II: New Perspectives, edited by Gwilym Dodd and Anthony Musson, 22–47. Woodbridge: York Medieval, 2006.
    • Mark Ormrod’s article focuses on the sexuality of King Edward II and unlike many earlier works did not simplify it into merely a question of whether Edward II was gay or not. Ormrod explains why Edward’s sexuality was important to his contemporaries and discusses how kingly sexuality was constructed.
  • Christopher Fletcher, ‘Manhood, Kingship and the Public in Late Medieval England,’ Edad Media: Revista de Historia 13 (2012): 123–142.
    • Christopher Fletcher has explored kingly masculinity in several important works. This article is an excellent introduction to a nuanced understanding of the links between masculinity and kingship.

Reading and viewing lists

  • Jacqueline Murray, ‘Historicizing Sexuality, Sexualizing History.’ In Writing Medieval History, edited by Nancy Partner, 133–52. London: Arnold, 2005.
    • Murray provides an excellent introduction to different views of sexuality in the Middle Ages. The article also introduces readers to different approaches to studying sexuality in the past.
  • Ruth Mazo Karras, Sexuality in Medieval Europe: Doing unto Others. 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2012. 
    • Karras well-written and accessible textbook provides a great overview of sexuality and gender in medieval Europe. It discusses chastity, marital sexuality and the various forms of sexuality that were seen as deviant by the medieval Church.
  • Theresa Earenfight, Queenship in Medieval Europe. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
    • Earenfight explores how queenship was viewed in different parts of medieval Europe. It provides a foundation to understand the various components of medieval queenship and how queenship varied over time and in different places. It provides an introduction to how queens can be analysed. It is well written and highly accessible. 

Keywords

Main people

Edward II, Isabella of France, Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou, Juan II, María of Aragon, Isabel of Portugal, Enrique IV, Blanca of Navarre, Juana of Portugal, Magnus Eriksson, Blanche of Namur

Places

England, France, Castile, Sweden, Norway, Ávila, Portugal, St Albans Abbey, Westminster Abbey, Denmark, Aragon

Terms/objects

Political critique, discourses, marriage, alliances, kingship, queenship, masculinity, femininity, rulership, honor, conjugal debt, sexuality, sodomy, adultery, impotence, magic, annulment, virginity, Farce of Ávila, virility, Muslims, Moors, sodomy, xenophobia, adultery, rebellions, civil war, dowry, Wars of the Roses, mental health, chastity, advisers, court, councillor, the Order of Santiago, constable, favouritism

People and texts

Hugh Despenser the Younger, Jean Froissart, Robert of Reading, Vita Edwardi Secundi, Queen Philippa of Hainault, King Edward III of England, St. Paul, Crónica de Juan II, Alfonso de Palencia, Diego de Valera, Juan de Flores, Edward of Westminster, The English Chronicle, The Brut, Richard of York, Henry Blacman, Piers Gaveston, Annales Paulini, Ranulf Higden, Polychronicon, King Philippe IV of France, Geoffrey le Baker, Roger Mortimer, Libellus de Magno Erici Rege, Álvaro de Luna, Fernán Pérez de Guzmán, Beltrán de la Cueva, Crónica anónima de Enrique IV, Fernando del Pulgar, Isabel the Catholic, Juana la Beltraneja

Modern scholars

Richard Kagan, John Carmi Parsons, Theresa Earenfight, Cynthia Herrup, Mark Ormrod, Katherine Lewis, Ruth Mazo Karras, Barbara Weissberger, Joanna Laynesmith

Related Chapters

Hélder Carvalhal: Kingship and Masculinity in Renaissance Portugal (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries) (See Chapter 18)

Benjamin Wild: Clothing Royal Bodies: changing attitudes to royal dress and appearance from the Middle Ages to modernity (See Chapter 23)

Jonathan Spangler: A Family Affair: Cultural Anxiety, Political Debate and the Nature of Monarchy in Seventeenth-Century France and Britain (See Chapter 27)

Theresa Earenfight & Kristen Geaman: Neither Heir nor Spare: Childless Queens and the Practice of Monarchy in Pre-Modern Europe (See Chapter 30)

Stephen Donnachie: Male Consorts and Royal Authority in the Crusader States (See Chapter 36)

Chad Denton: From Galanterie to Scandal: The Sexuality of the King from Louis XIV to XVI (See Chapter 41)

Chapter 39

The Tudor Monarchy of Counsel and the Growth of Reason of State


There is a curious paradox in scholarly understandings of counsel during the Tudor period. On the one hand, political counsel is widely recognised to have been one of the central, if not the central, political concern of the Tudor period. On the other hand, the two longest-reigning and best-known monarchs of the period, Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, have a reputation – then and now – for being notoriously difficult to counsel, for refusing advice or being offended by the presentation of it. To add further complexity, both Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth were products of a humanist education which stressed the importance of counsel to a monarch, and went to great lengths to appear as if they were recipients of educated advice. This chapter provides an outline of the discourse of counsel during the Tudor ‘monarchy of counsel’, before examining in particular the fundamental shift from a ‘humanist’ discourse of counsel in the early decades of the sixteenth century to a ‘Machiavellian’ discourse from the middle of the century. It ends by examining how this latter vocabulary became the foundation of the Reason of State tradition, which emphasises the prioritization of the ‘interest’ of the state, often over more moral or religious considerations, a topic often overlooked in studies of Elizabethan politics.

By Joanne Paul with Valerie Schutte


Joanne Paul

Joanne Paul is Lecturer in Early Modern History at the University of Sussex and has published widely on humanism and politics in 16th-century England. Her book, Thomas More, was published by Polity in 2016 and she has upcoming book projects with Palgrave, Cambridge University Press and Penguin. She has also published in Renaissance Quarterly, Hobbes Studies, Renaissance Studies and in other journals, volumes and magazines.

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SP 70/8: Secretaries of State: State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth I, 1559 Oct to Nov.

SP 70/52: Secretaries of State: State Papers Foreign, Elizabeth I, 1563 Mar 1 to Mar 17.

SP 78/2: Secretaries of State: State Papers Foreign, France, 1578.

SP 83/8: Secretaries of State: State Papers Foreign, Holland and Flanders, 1578 Aug.

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Tucker, David. The End of Intelligence: Espionage and State Power in the Information Age/ Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2014.

Viroli, Maurizio. From Politics to Reason of State: The Acquisition and Transformation of the Language of Politics 1250-1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Walker, Greg. The Politics of Performance in Early Renaissance Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

-----. Writing Under Tyranny: English Literature and the Henrician Reformation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
----- Plays of Persuasion: Drama and Politics at the Court of Henry VIII. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Walzer, Arthur. “Rhetoric of Counsel in Thomas Elyot’s Pasquil the Playne.” Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric 30, no. 1 (2012): 1–21.

-----. “The Rhetoric of Counsel and Thomas Elyot’s Of the Knowledge Which Maketh a Wise Man.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 45, no. 1 (2012): 24–45.

Watts, John. “Counsel and the King’s Council in England, c.1340-c.1540.” In The Politics of Counsel in England and Scotland, 1286-1707, edited by Jacqueline Rose, 63–85. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Williams, Steven J. The Secret of Secrets: The Scholarly Career of a Pseudo-Aristotelian Text in the Latin Middle Ages. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.

Related Chapters

Manuel Alejandro Rodríguez de la Peña: The “Wise King” topos in context: Royal Literacy and Political Theology in Medieval Western Europe (c.1000-1200) (See Chapter 3)

Mikolaj Getka-Kenig: In Pursuit of Social Allies: Royal Residences and Political Legitimacy in Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1804-1830 (See Chapter 22)

Susan Broomhall: Ruling Emotions: Affective and Emotional Strategies of Power and Authority among Early Modern European Monarchies (See Chapter 40)

Chapter 40

Ruling Emotions Affective and Emotional Strategies of Power and Authority among Early Modern European Monarchies


This chapter explores how the emerging scholarship of the history of emotions might usefully inform the study of monarchy in the early modern period. Feeling practices not only reflect modes of domination and subordination, but particular kinds of emotion expression can themselves be understood as forms and performances of power (as well as a disruption of these). Ideas about feelings defined the nature of the bond between ruler and subject. For rulers, emotional rhetoric and affective display were integral components of the construction of power for both male and female monarchs, who operated within culturally and gender-specific practices of both feeling and rule. Power and authority were expressed through controlled emotional labour and deliberate feeling displays of the body, captured in eyewitness reports, portraits, ceremony, entries and ritual practices and carefully constructed emotional rhetoric underpinned the notion of rule in edicts, letters, and other textual forms. Through particular, often practised and sometimes unexpected, emotional displays, monarchs could assert their authority over subordinates and exert wide influence. They could do so as individuals, and also as representatives of a system of rule.

By Susan Broomhall


Susan Broomhall

Susan Broomhall is Professor of Early Modern History at The University of Western Australia. She researches women and gender, power, emotions, material culture, and knowledge practices from late medieval to nineteenth-century Europe, although the particular focus of her work is early modern France and the Low Countries. Her edited collection, Women and Power at the French Court, 1483-1563, was published by Amsterdam University Press in 2018. Researcher Page

Bibliography

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Marie-Antoinette. Correspondance (1770–1793). Edited by Évelyne Lever. Paris: Tallandier, 2005.

Mémoires de Frédérique Sophie Wilhelmine, margrave de Bareith, soeur de Frédéric Le Grand. Vol. 1. Brunswick, Fréderic Vieweg, 1810.

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Stedman, Gesa. Cultural Exchange in Seventeenth-century France and England. Farnham: Ashgate, 2013.

Sternberg, Giora.  Status Interaction during the Reign of Louis XIV. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

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Watkins, John. After Lavinia: A Literary History of Premodern Marriage Diplomacy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2017.

Related Chapters

David Malitz: The Nation as a Ritual Community: Royal Nation-Building in Imperial Japan and Post-War Thailand (See Chapter 13)

Christoph de Spiegeleer: The Nationalisation and Mediatisation of European Monarchies in Times of Sorrow: Royal Deaths and Funerals in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century (See Chapter 14)

Joanne Paul with Valerie Schutte: The Tudor Monarchy of Counsel and the Growth of Reason of State (See Chapter 39)

Chapter 41

From Galanterie to Scandal: The Sexuality of the King from Louis XIV to XVI


The biographies of the first three King Louis of France’s Bourbon dynasty—Louis XIV, XV, and XVI—reveal striking contrasts in their intimate lives and how their relationships with women were received by the French public. Specifically, Louis XIV had numerous adulterous yet formalized relationships that attracted criticism from ecclesiastic authorities but were generally perceived as gallantry. Louis XV likewise had a series of mistresses, but the public criticized him intensely because of his sexual inclinations. Modern historians have even put forward the theory that Louis XV's adulteries undermined the monarchy itself. Finally, Louis XVI completely eschewed having an “official mistress” and constructed a model of royal domesticity with his queen Marie Antoinette. At the same time, hostile critics at the eve of the French Revolution cast Louis XVI as a weak, impotent king and portrayed Marie Antoinette as a corrupt nymphomaniac. While one should not neglect the factors of the kings’ individual personalities and behaviors, these kings' public reputations were very much molded by the broad social and cultural changes of the early modern era. This chapter focuses on how the kings’ sexual lives were comprehended by the public and how the public were informed by ongoing changes in popular perceptions of religion and morality, gender, and marriage and domesticity unfolding across the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

By Chad Denton


Chad Denton

Chad Denton received his PhD in history and a graduate minor in Women’s and Gender Studies from the University of Missouri. His specializations are in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, France and northern Italy, the history of gender and sexuality, and the history of emotions. Recently he published his dissertation, The Enlightened and Depraved: Decadence, Radicalism, and the Early Modern French Nobility, through Rowman & Littlefield.

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___________. Marie Antoinette, The Journey. New York: Anchor Books, 2001.

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Wellman, Kathleen. Queens and Mistresses of Renaissance France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.

Annotated bibliography

  • Berly, Cécile (2012) La Reine scandaleuse, Idèes reçues sur Marie-Antoinette Paris: Editions Le Cavalier Bleu.
    • This study provides a detailed discussion of negative depictions of Marie Antoinette before and during the French Revolution.
  • Darnton, Robert (2010) The Devil in the Holy Water, or The Art of Slander from Louis XIV to Napoleon (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
    • Darnton’s recent contribution discusses how the popular press of late-seventeenth and eighteenth-century France satirized various members of the royal family and mistresses.
  • Gibson, Wendy (1989) Women in Seventeenth Century France Houndmills: Macmillan.
    • A classic survey of women’s social, economic, religious, and political lives in seventeenth-century France.
  • Guicciardi, Jean-Paul (1987). "Between the Licit and the Illicit:  The Sexuality of the King", trans. Michael Murray in 'Tis Nature's Fault: Unauthorized Sexuality during the Enlightenment (ed.) Robert P. Maccubbin  University of Cambridge Press, 1987.
    • This essay analyzes the ways in which Louis XV’s sexual behavior impacted the popular perception of Monarchy.
  • Kates, Gary (2001) Monsieur d'Eon is a Woman: A Tale of Political Intrigue and Sexual Masquerade Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.
    • Although as the title suggests it is a biography of the Chevalier d’Eon, it also contains a fascinating analysis of how gender roles shifted in eighteenth-century Europe.
  • Wellman, Kathleen. Queens and Mistresses of Renaissance France New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.
    • Even though the book does not cover the period discussed in the chapter, this provides an important discussion of the roles both queens and mistresses played in the French monarchy from Charles VII’s mistress Agnès Sorel to Henri IV’s mistress Gabrielle d’Estrées. 

Reading and Viewing Lists

  • Fraser, Antonia (2007) Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King
    • This book gives a biographical overview of the women in the life of King Louis XIV, including his mistress Madame de Montespan and morganatic wife Madame de Maintenon.
  • Anne Somerset (2003) The Affair of the Poisons: Murder, Infanticide, and Satanism at the Court of Louis XIV (New York: St. Martin’s Press).
    • Covering a scandal involving Madame de Montespan, the book presents an account that encompasses the fragility of a mistress’s position and the internal politics of the court at Versailles.
  • James, Colin (2002) Madame de Pompadour: Images of a Mistress (London:  National Gallery Company).
    • An overview of art depicting Louis XV’s most influential mistress, Madame de Pompadour, this volume discusses Pompadour’s biography as well as how artistic representations were used to promote an image of Pompadour as a cultural patron.
  • Algrant, Christine Pevitt (2003) Madame de Pompadour: Mistress of France (New York: Grove Press)
    • A biography of Madame de Pompadour that pays particular attention to the role that she, as the “official mistress” of Louis XV, played in court life and cultural and intellectual patronage.
  • Fraser, Antonia (2002) Marie Antoinette: The Journey (New York: Anchor)
    • This biography of Marie Antoinette encompasses her life from her childhood as an Austrian princess to her trial and execution with particular attention to how her personal life, personality, and relationships with her husband and children shaped the monarchy as well as how hostile propaganda distorted her public image.
  • Ridicule (France, 1996)
    • This film depicts a portrait of aristocratic life at Versailles, particularly how power and hierarchy were maintained through wit, favors, and patronage, and touches on the moral reforms at court Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette attempted.
  • Marie Antoinette (U.S., 2006)
    • Although this biographical film of Marie Antoinette does not depict the events of the French Revolution, it is a detailed visualization of Marie Antoinette’s everyday life at Versailles.

Keywords

Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI, Madame de Montespan, Madame de Maintenon, Madame de Pompadour, Madame du Barry, Marie Antoinette, mistresses, queens, gender

Related Chapters

Hélder Carvalhal: Kingship and Masculinity in Renaissance Portugal (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries) (See Chapter 18)

Jonathan Spangler: A Family Affair: Cultural Anxiety, Political Debate and the Nature of Monarchy in Seventeenth-Century France and Britain (See Chapter 27)

Christine Ekholst & Henric Bagerius: For Better or for Worse: Royal Marital Sexuality as Political Critique in Late Medieval Europe (See Chapter 38)

Susan Broomhall: Ruling Emotions: Affective and emotional strategies of power and authority among early modern European monarchies (See Chapter 40)

Chapter 42

Queen Min, Foreign Policy, and the Role of Female Leadership in Late Nineteenth-Century Korea


Empress Myeongseong or Queen Min, was probably the most influential Korean woman in the modern history of the country. As first empress of the Korean Empire, she established her influence on politics early and was a decisive force trying to check Japan’s imperial ambitions on the Korean Peninsula. She also stimulated social changes in the country by supporting educational and other reforms The chapter will highlight Empress Myeongseong’s role in the development of a strong anti-Japanese foreign policy at the Korean court that led to her assassination by Japanese agents in 1895. A special focus will therefore be placed on her path to power, internal Korean conflicts, as well as the Min clan and its role during Myeongseong’s rule. Her leadership has then to be examined in more detail to show how women in influential positions were able to dominate the politics of an Asian country as well. She presented a form of indirect rule, due to which a woman eventually was able to take over state business. It is therefore not only important to highlight the political interconnection between Japan and Korea in the last third of the 19th century, but Empress Myeongseong’s role with regard to this particular history. The chapter will emphasize her particular role in Korea’s ability to resist the Japanese expansive ambitions, at least until her assassination in 1895.

By Frank Jacob


Frank Jacob

Frank Jacob received his PhD in Japanese Studies from the University of Erlangen, Germany. He is currently Professor of Global History at Nord University, Norway. His main research focuses on modern East Asian History, especially Japan and Korea and the history of transnational anarchism.

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Annotated bibliography

  • Choi, H. (2009) Gender and Mission Encounters in Korea: New Women, Old Ways, Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press.
    • This book provides an insight into Korea during its modernization and the role of missionaries for the change of gender roles within the country.
  • Gen’yōsha (ed.) (1917) Gen'yōsha shashi, Tokyo: Gen'yōsha Shashi Hensankai.
    • The volume was published by the Black Ocean Society and contains a history of activities of the society. It has to be read critically, because the members of the Gen’yōsha retrospectively overemphasized their own role for Japan’s foreign policy in the late 19th and early 20th century.
  • Kim, Y.-S. (2008) ‘Two Perspectives on the 1895 Assassination of Queen Min’, Korea Journal 48, 2: 160-185.
    • This article provides some basic considerations with regard to the assassination of the Korean empress.
  • Larsen, K. W. (2011) Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Choson Korea, 1850-1910, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    • The book is highly recommended to understand the Chinese interest in late 19th century Korea.
  • Simbirtseva, T. M. (1996) ‘Queen Min of Korea: Coming to Power’, Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society-Korea Branch 71, 4: 41-53.
    • The articles provides a very helpful description of Queen Min’s rise to power.

Keywords

Isabella Bird Bishop; Black Ocean Society; Empress Myeongseong; Daewongun; Donghak Rebellion; Hong Yŏngsik; Inoue Kaoru; Itō Hirobumi; Kaspin Coup; Kim Hong-jip; Kim Ok-kyun; King Cheoljong; King Kojong; King Sunjo; Korean Peninsula; Li Hung-chang; Miura Gorō; Pak Yŏnghyo; Queen Dowager Cho; Sino-Japanese War; So Chaep-il; Sŏ Kwangbŏm; Sugimura Fukashi; Lillian H. Underwood; Yuan Shikai; Yi Cun-yong; Yi Dynasty; Yu Kil-chun

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