Keywords

Persons

Changara; Dom Gonçalo da Silveira; Francisco Barreto; Francisco Monclaro; Ganyambadzi; Gatsi Rusere; João dos Santos; Júlio César Vertua; Manuel da Purificação; Mavhura; Simão de São Tomás; Vamuturo

Kingdoms or places:

Angola; Asia; Butwa; China; East Africa; Goa; India; Indian Ocean; Japan; Kiteve; Kongo; Monomotapa; Mozambique; Mozambique Island; Mukaranga; Munhumutapa; Persia; Portugal; Sofala; Tete; Zambezi valley; Zimbabwe; Zumbo

cross-cultural exchanges; diplomacy; ritual

Related Chapters

Philippa Woodcock: Early Modern Monarchy and Foreign Travel (See Chapter 17)

Mikolaj Getka-Kenig: In Pursuit of Social Allies: Royal Residences and Political Legitimacy in Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1804-1830 (See Chapter 22)

Beverly Stoeltje: Creating chiefs and queen mothers in Ghana: obstacles and opportunities (See Chapter 33)

Key Works

Abraham, D. P. “The Monomotapa Dinasty.” NADA 36 (1959): 59-84

Abraham, D. P. “Maramuca: An Exercise in the Combined Use of Portuguese Records and Oral Tradition.” Journal of African History 2, no. 2 (1961): 211-225

Beach, D. N. “The Mutapa Dynasty: A Comparison of Documentary and Traditional Evidence.” History in Africa 3 (1976): 1-17.

Beach, David. The Shona and the Zimbabwe 900-1850. London: Heineman, 1980.

Mudenge, S. I. G. A political history of Munhumutapa c. 1400-1902. Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988.

Newitt, Malyn. A History of Mozambique. London: Hurst & Company, 1995.

Pikirayi, Innocent. The Zimbabwe Culture. Origins and Decline of Southern Zambezian States. Walnut Creek: Altamira Press, 2001.

Rodrigues, Eugénia. Portugueses e Africanos nos Rios de Sena. Os Prazos da Coroa em Moçambique nos Séculos XVII e XVIII. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 2013.

Biographies of the Mutapa

The state of Munhumutapa or Monomotapa, in East Africa, lasted for five centuries, between c. 1400 and 1902. The biographies of most of its rulers – the mutapa – are uncertain and some periods continue to be particularly obscure. The literature on these sovereigns has been drawing on Portuguese documents from the early 16th century onward and oral history recorded by scholars in the 20th century, which often do not match. There is also a considerable doubt about the affiliation of several mutapa.

Nyatsimba Mutota (15th century).

Son of Chikura Wadyambeu (a semi-historic figure), Mutota is considered to be the founder of the state known as Munhumutapa, Monomotapa or Mukaranga and its first mutapa. Based in Shangwe, he conquered the territories north of the Karanga plateau, Chidima and Dande, and it is supposed that shortly before his dead he subjected Guruuswa, the traditional land of the Shona.

Matope Nyanhehwe Nebedza (15th century)

Son of Mutota, he is remembered as one of the main mutapa, associated with important institutions: the cult of the royal spirit mhondoro and the cult of the Supreme Being Dzivaguru, of the Tawara subjects, related to rainmakers. His capital (zimbabwe) was located south of the confluence of the Zambezi and Musengezi Rivers. Matope expanded the state eastwards, up to the Zambezi and Luenya Rivers, which enabled him to control this gold route to the Indian Ocean. These territories were governed by relatives, above all by sons and brothers. The domain of the Tonga, on the right bank of the Zambezi, was transmitted by the alliance with the local chief, who married one of the daughters/sisters of the mutapa, giving rise to the Makombe dynasty which ruled Barwe.

Nyahuma Mukombero (?-c. 1490)

Son of Matope, he concluded the conquest of Kiteve, through which passed the route connecting the Karanga plateau with the Swahili seashore of Sofala. He installed a Karanga dynasty there, whose rulers were known as sachiteve. At this juncture the state began to disintegrate owing to competition among lineages. The changamire Torwa of Guruuswa, recorded as a vassal of the mutapa, eliminated Mukombero and most of his offspring and became the mutapa himself.

Changamire (c. 1490-93/94)

The Torwa ruler of Guruuswa, who seized power in Mukaranga.

Chikuyo Chisamarengu (1493/4-1530)

Mukombero’s son, he managed to expel the changamire and recovered control of the territory, except for Guruuswa. During his reign, Maniyka was incorporated into Munhumutapa. Kiteve became progressively autonomous, extending its influence to Danda, near the port of Sofala. Chikuyo established diplomatic and commercial relations with the Portuguese factory in Sofala founded in 1507. The mutapa was defeated in a dispute over the route connecting the plateau and the coast, in 1528, by the ruler of Danda – Nyamunda – who monopolised access to Sofala.

Neshangwe Munembire (c. 1530-1550)

Continued the conflict with Nyamunda and defeated him in a war fought in 1540-1542. The mutapa then sent an embassy to the Portuguese in Sofala to pursue trade. However, the war had left the region devastated, affecting the resumption of mercantile activities. During this period the Portuguese joined the Muslim merchants who used the Zambezi route to the Karanga plateau.

Chivere Nyasoro (c. 1550-1560)

Was probably a son of Chikuyo. During his reign the Portuguese began to participate in the gold fairs on the Karanga plateau, just like Swahili merchants already did. In 1560, the main fair, Massapa, had a Portuguese captain (the ‘captain of the doors’) who had jurisdiction and collected taxes (of which the most important was the kuruva) from all merchants in the name of the mutapa.

Negomo Mupunzagutu (Dom Sebastião) (1560-1586/9)

A son of Chikuyo, became the mutapa in a procedure contested by the ruler of Kiteve. Negomo received the first Christian mission in Mukaranga, headed by the Jesuit Dom Gonçalo da Silveira (1561), and he was baptised as Dom Sebastião, the name of the Portuguese king. He later ordered the missionary’s execution. The Portuguese warned the mutapa to expect a divine punishment for the death of Silveira and he then ordered the execution of the people who had advised him to kill the Jesuit. Negomo had to contend with a military expedition dispatched from Lisbon to avenge Silveira’s execution and to conquer Munhumutapa (1572-1575). The mutapa agreed to the Portuguese demands (freedom to trade, handing over the mines and freedom for missionary activities) but this did not change the situation on the ground.

Gatsi Rusere (1586/9-1623)

A son of the mukomohasha (captain-general of the armies) Nyandoro. During his reign the kuruva began to be paid by the Portuguese captain of Mozambique Island. From 1597 onward, Maravi groups from the area north of the Zambezi River invaded Mukaranga, while internal revolts resulted in a civil war. In 1606, one of the rebels – Matuzvianye – declared himself to be the mutapa. Gatsi Rusere demanded help from the Portuguese merchants, signing a treaty with their leader (1607). He granted the Karanga mines to the Portuguese in exchange for military assistance. Meanwhile, he decided to attack Barwe, which had failed to pay its tributes. Gatsi Rusere regained control over Mukaranga only in 1609. The unfruitful attempts by the Portuguese to discover silver in the Chikova region resulted in innumerable military clashes. At this time Barwe and Maniyka probably ceased to recognise the suzerainty of the mutapa.

Nyambo Kapararidze (1623-1629)

Was a son of Gatsi Rusere. He won the struggle for power against Mavhura Mhande, his father’s brother. After receiving the kuruva, the mutapa launched an attack against the Portuguese, possibly due to a breach of protocol. He was deposed in 1629 after Mavhura and the Portuguese formed an alliance.

Mavhura Mhande (Dom Filipe) (1629-1631)

The eldest son of Negomo Mupunzagutu, he sought military support from the Portuguese. He signed a treaty with them (1629), in which he declared himself to be a vassal of the Portuguese crown and granted it part of the territory south of the Zambezi. Mavhura was baptised by Dominican missionaries and gave them permission to establish a parish in his capital. The Portuguese gained unfettered access to the mines and the fairs on the Karanga plateau and extended their dominions in the territory south of the Zambezi, where they created the prazos (land grants).

Nyambo Kapararidze (1631-1632)

At the end of 1631, Kapararidze managed to obtain the assistance of various chiefs to attack the Portuguese and Mavhura and regained control of Mukaranga. He was especially cruel to the Dominicans, who had been Mavhura’s main supporters, and ordered their execution. However, he was defeated by the Portuguese army in the following year. Kapararidze continued to fight to recover the power.

Mavhura Mhande (Dom Filipe) (1632-1652)

Regained power with the support of his Portuguese allies, who maintained a military garrison in his capital, to defend him against attacks by Kapararidze and opponent factions among the Karanga elite. By means of the 1629 treaty he lost the ability to collect taxes from merchants and, instead of the kuruva tribute, the Portuguese administration in Mozambique would send him a saguate (gift), which, although of an equivalent value, underscored his status as a vassal. Mavhura’s government is considered to be the beginning of a set of puppet mutapa rulers controlled by the Portuguese. Nevertheless, he continued to have significant autonomy and maintained Karanga institutions.

Siti Kazurukumusapa (Dom Domingos) (1652-1654)

Was a son of Mavhura. During his father’s reign, Siti was hostile towards the Portuguese but was forced to resort to their help to accede to power, fearing an offensive by Kapararidze. His baptism (on August 4, 1652, St. Dominic’s day), as well as the baptism of his main wife, two sons and various Karanga dignitaries, made a great impact in Rome as well as in Lisbon. Siti died shortly after he became the mutapa.

Cikate (Dom João) (1654-c. 1663).

Portuguese sources mention the installation of a new mutapa, but do not indicate his name, which was probably Cikate, mentioned only in subsequent documents. The Portuguese conducted a war against this mutapa and probably assassinated him.

Mutata Kupika Dom Afonso) (c. 1663-1663)

Was a brother of Mavhura. Little is known about his reign, although it is documented by a letter sent to the King of Portugal, in which he requested that the military garrison be maintained. Portuguese merchants waged war on this ruler, who was later deposed by Karanga chiefs.

Kamharapasu Mukombwe (Dom Filipe) (c. 1663-1692)

Was a son of Mavhura. He became the mutapa backed by the Portuguese but then later dared to turn against them. In 1673, when the Portuguese again sought silver in Chikova, Mukombwe declared war against them with Maniyka’s support. In the 1680s, the mutapa regained some territories dominated by the Portuguese merchants in the plateau, in exchange for allowing them to mine and trade there. By making grants of land from the territories recovered from the Portuguese and those confiscated from his adversaries, Mukombwe promoted the formation of powerful houses. He also tried to contain the expansion of changamire Dombo of Butwa, attacking his army immediately after it had defeated the Portuguese army at Maungwe (1684). However, he was beaten and had to ally with the Portuguese. Mukombwe is remembered as one of the most important mutapa due to the role he played in the resurgence of Munhumutapa.

Nyakunembire (1692-1694)

A son of Mavhura, became mutapa, probably sustained by the changamire. In 1693, Nyakunembire appealed to the changamire to attack the Portuguese fair in Dambarare. About 60 people were killed during this assault, including Portuguese, Goans and Africans, and the Portuguese consequently abandoned the other fairs on the plateau. Nyamaende Mhande and Chirimbe, both of whom were sons of Mukombwe and had been exiled in Maniyka, took advantage of this situation. Mhande demanded the support of the Portuguese against Nyakunembire, having also mobilised important Karanga chiefs. The mutapa offered no resistance and sought refuge with the changamire. Some authors suggest that Nyakunembire began a new dynasty in Maniyka.

Nyamaende Mhande (Dom Pedro) (1694-c. 1698)

Son of Mukombwe, he was educated and baptised at the house of Dona Vicência João, a mixed-blood lady who controlled the Inhambanzo lands. The Portuguese initially refused to hold Mhande, but Dona Vicência managed to mobilise support to enlarge her protégé’s army. In 1694, Mhande was recognised as the mutapa by high rank chiefs and the Portuguese thus sent him a garrison. In the context of new discoveries of silver in Chikova, in 1696, the mutapa signed a treaty allowing the Portuguese Crown to explore these mines. However, as in the past, the Portuguese faced the opposition of the local chief and failed to locate the mines. Mhande died in c. 1698.

Chirimbi (Dom Manuel) (c. 1698-c.1702)

Was a son of Mukombwe. The Portuguese preferred Mapeze, a son of Mhande, as the mutapa, but they nonetheless sent Chirimbi a garrison to contain the hostility of some Karanga chiefs. Mapeze, in his turn, was baptised in 1699 and went to Goa, where he joined the Dominican order as Friar Dom Constantino do Rosário, as did his brother, Friar Dom João, shortly afterwards. In 1720, both these friars set sail on a journey to Lisbon but one died at the start of the voyage and the other died in São Salvador da Baía, in Brazil.

Boroma Dangwarangwa (Dom João) (c. 1702)

His reign is documented in 1702. Dangwarangwa was supported by the Portuguese merchants, which was probably the reason why the changamire invaded Munhumutapa and attacked the zimbabwe. Dangwarangwa sought refuge in the Portuguese settlement at Tete, near the Zambezi River. However, the Portuguese decided to confront the changamire and sent the few military forces they had available to join those of the mutapa. The ensuing battle resulted in the defeat of the allies and high casualties among their armies, including the life of the mutapa.

Samutumbu Nyamhandu (c. 1702-1706)

Was probably a son of Mukombwe. Having been educated by the Jesuits, Nyamhandu spoke Portuguese fluently. He came to power holded by the changamire, with whom he signed a treaty that made him a vassal of Butwa. Samutumbu was also not invested according to Karanga ceremonies, which resulted in opposition from the Karanga elite. In this context, the mutapa sought the support of the Portuguese, who were suspicious of his intentions. Taking advantage of the civil war that broke out in Butwa after the changamire died, the Portuguese allied with Barwe and Maravi Kalonga (north of the Zambezi) in 1706 and attacked Mukaranga to install another mutapa in power, probably Gende. Although he won the battle, Nyamhandu died shortly afterwards.

Little is known about the subsequent period, which was marked by a civil war among various houses, some of which had emerged as a result of the territorial grants by mutapa Mukombwe (e.g. Kasekete, Gupo, Kandewa and Changara), and by the secession of chiefdoms on the plateau. Portuguese sources allude to a mutapa Semotane, in 1709, and a mutapa Gende (Zenda, Ginde or Nyenyedzi), placed on the throne by the Portuguese in 1710, while some authors also mention mutapa Gupo, Mupunzagutu and Sakapio.

Nyamhandu (Dom João) (c. 1710-c. 1740)

Fought for power during a civil war that extended over several years. In order to obtain external legitimacy, in 1710 Nyamhandu demanded Portuguese assistance. The Portuguese were divided and refused to support him but in 1711 they sent him a garrison for a while. However, the civil war continued and in 1715 a faction among the Portuguese supported Gende as the mutapa. Nyamhandu managed to regain power and, in 1718, after the death of his main adversary, Kamota Kasekete, the Portuguese recognised him as the mutapa, baptising him and providing him a military garrison. Nyamhandu was not able to extend his rule to the plateau, establishing his capital in the lowlands near the Zambezi River, in the territory of present-day Mozambique, where his successors remained. In the meanwhile, the Portuguese established a fair in Zumbo, on the east bank of the confluence of the Luangwa and Zambezi Rivers.

Karidza Chisamaru (early 1740s)

Was a son of Boroma Dangwarangwa. He was deposed since he turned blind and sought refuge north of the Zambezi River, in Maravi territory.

Chikoka (early 1740s)

Died.

Kabwe (early 1740s)

Expelled from the zimbabwe by Debwe.

Debwe (c. 1743-1750)

Son of Nyamhandu. He began by waging war against the Portuguese, who had supported the previous mutapa. In 1745, he attacked the lands of the Portuguese Crown in the area of Tete, which obliged the Portuguese to ask the changamire for help, having formed an alliance with him in the meanwhile.

Mupunzagutu (c. 1750-c. 1760)

Son of Nyamhandu, he succeeded after the death of his brother. The Portuguese provided him a garrison and the habitual gifts. His authority over his subjects was weak, allegedly because he consumed large amounts of cannabis. In 1760, during a new civil war, Mupunzagutu was assassinated by his brother Zindave.

Zindave (c. 1760)

Son of Nyamhandu, he assassinated Mupunzagutu and declared himself to be mutapa. He persecuted his brother Kamota, fearing his opposition.

Kamota(c. 1760-1761)

Son of Nyamhandu, he defeated Zindave, who fled to Dande, where he was killed by Derere. At this time the mutapa state split into two: the western region, Dande, was governed by Derere; the eastern part, Chidima, continued to be called Mukaranga and its rulers mutapa.

Mutanyikwa (1761-1762)

Son of Karidza, he commanded an army which eliminated Kamota. He ruled for about a year and, when faced with the threat of Zeze’s army, sought refuge in Maravi territory north of the Zambezi.

Zeze (c. 1762-c. 1767)

Son of Nyamhandu, and supporter of his brother Kamota, he managed to muster an army that was powerful enough to be able to be declared the mutapa.

Ganyambadzi (c. 1767-1769)

Son of Chikoka. During a new civil war he expelled Zeze from the Zimbabwe and became the mutapa. Ganyambadzi and his vassals attacked Portuguese prazos and often obstructed the route to the Zumbo fair. In 1769, Ganyambadzi was defeated by Changara and sought refuge in Maravi territory, in the lands of chief Bive. The Portuguese feared an alliance of the two chiefs, which would be contrary to their interests, and managed to ensure that the former mutapa left Bive’s territory. In 1772, he besieged the Zumbo fair and the Portuguese had to ask for help from the changamire to defeat him. Ganyambadzi withdrew to Barwe, where he installed a new ruler.

Changara (1769-c. 1779)

Defeated Ganyambadzi in 1769. The new mutapa signed a treaty with the Portuguese administration in which he promised to provide free passage to merchants and to allow the Dambarare fair to reopen. However, the plan to resume the old fairs on the plateau was no longer of interest to merchants from the Portuguese colony and was never implemented. Since Changara’s subjects were attacking Portuguese lands, the Portuguese governor of the Zambezi Valley region prohibited trade with the Karanga in 1770 and threatened to wage war against the mutapa. Relations between the two powers were re-established in the same year and the Portuguese send a garrison with gifts. Clashes between Changara and Ganyambadzi intensified from 1776 onward.

Ganyambadzi(c. 1779-1785)

In c. 1779, Ganyambadzi’s army defeated Changara, who sought refuge near the Zumbo fair. In Barwe, Ganyambadzi demanded that the Portuguese recognise him as the mutapa, which they delayed doing since the political and military situation was still very uncertain and Ganyambadzi was not in Chidima. Finally, in 1780, the Portuguese sent a garrison with the customary gifts. The mutapa signed two treaties with the Portuguese, in 1781 and in 1783, relating to trade, diplomacy, control of lands and jurisdiction over conflicts between Karanga and Portuguese subjects. Ganyambadzi died in 1785.

Bangoma (1785-1794)

Son of Mupunzagutu, maintained amicable relations with the Portuguese. However, his subjects continuously attacked merchants at the Zumbo fair, while the former mutapa Changara sent regular embassies to the fair demanding gifts. In this context, the Portuguese shifted the settlement at Zumbo to the Mukariva Peninsula, on the western shore of the Luangwa River, in 1788. Trade at the fair was already diminishing by this time.

Changara (1794-c. 1806)

The former mutapa, regained power in 1794. His reign was marked by a serious drought in the Zambezi Valley, which impoverished the region. The chiefs who were established along the river increased taxes on the Zumbo merchants. In 1804, Mburuma chief, of the Luenge people north of the Zambezi River, attacked the fair and the Portuguese merchants abandoned it for some time. As a result, the mutapa and other Karanga chiefs lost revenues derived from taxation.

Mutua (c. 1806)

Adescendant of a former mutapa, deposed Changara and became the mutapa himself.

Choofombo (c. 1806-1810)

Son of Changara. In 1807, the Portuguese governor of the Zambezi Valley, António Vilas Boas Truão, issued orders to burn the sacred graves (matsanza) of former mutapa rulers located in the Chikova region. After various clashes, Chifombo defeated the Portuguese army and imprisoned the survivors, including the governor. The mutapa, supported by his advisors, issued orders to execute all the Portuguese, except for two brothers from the mixed-blood Cruz family, one of whom –António José da Cruz (Bereco) – was the brother-in-law of the mutapa. The hostilities continued during subsequent years. The Portuguese stopped sending the usual gifts (saguate) to the mutapa and, in 1811, they abandoned the Zumbo fair.

Very little is known about the subsequent period.

Kandeya I(1821?-c. 1830)

A mutapa from the Kandeya house, identified by scholars as Kandeya I, he resumed relations with the Portuguese administration, claiming his saguate in 1823. The gift was dispatched in 1826, but it is not known whether the Portuguese continued to send saguates in subsequent years. This period was marked by a severe famine. Additionally, a prince – Dzeka – attacked Chidima and the mutapa was forced to abandon the zimbabwe and seek refuge in the bush. These wars affected trade routes and reduced the revenues from the tributes that the mutapa collected from merchants.

Dzeka (c. 1830-c. 1843)

His reign witnessed the invasions by the Nguni from southern Africa. In 1835-36, the Nguni carried out military raids in Chidima. Even though they were defeated these attacks disrupted the trade networks.

Kataruza (c. 1843-c. 1867)

Also from the Kandeya house, he became the chief of a small territory, according to David Livingstone. However, the mutapa continued to collect taxes from the trade routes. In 1861-1862, the Portuguese officially reoccupied the Zumbo fair. In the meanwhile, several ivory merchants settled near the fair, obtaining lands from the local chiefs.

Kandeya II(c. 1867-c. 1876)

Son of Kataruza, the second mutapa known as Kandeya seized power with the support of the Cruz family, which controlled the Massangano prazo, on the south bank of the Zambezi River. The matrimonial alliance between the mutapa and the Cruz family, supported by the mhondoro (royal spirit medium) Nebeza, alarmed the Portuguese, and, particularly, those who were seizing control of lands on the southern shores of the Zambezi River. The Portuguese army defeated the mutapa at the Kangure River, a tributary of the Mazowe River, and occupied part of the territory.

Dzuda (c. 1876-c. 1890)

Son of Dzeka. In c. 1881, he mustered an army to make an unsuccessful bid to reoccupy lands dominated by the Portuguese. On the contrary, in the context of the Scramble for Africa and the rivalry with the British, the Portuguese administration encouraged the lords of lands in the Zambezi Valley to expand their territory. In 1885, the Portuguese occupied what remained of Mukaranga state and the mutapa went into exile. Dzuda tried to organize a war against the Portuguese but, in c. 1890, he was defeated by Chioko Dambamupute.

Chioko Dambamupute (c. 1890-1902)

Son of Kataruza, he tried in vain to recreate the mutapa state, while the British and Portuguese battled over the borders of their empires in the region. In 1897, Chioko managed to obtain the support of some chiefs and important mhondoro. Three years later, the makombe of Barwe and the Cruz family in Massangano joined his rebellion. Chioko was killed in 1902 when he participated in the Barwe ruler battle against the Portuguese.