Students
Chapter 1
Key terms:
community policing, problem-oriented policing, Compstat, predictive policing, intelligence-led policing, criminal intelligence, Operation Thumbs Down
Headings
Introduction
Reimagining policing
What is intelligence-led policing?
What makes intelligence-led policing unique?
A holistic approach to crime control
Case study: Operation Thumbs Down
The structure of this book
Critical thinking questions
How does the evolution of policing through community policing to intelligence-led policing match your local police department or personal experiences?
How much of a police department’s energies should be focused on prolific and persistent offenders?
What are the factors that have favored the emergence of ILP?
What differentiates the definition of intelligence-led policing from other models of policing such as problem-oriented policing?
Chapter 2
Key terms:
standard model of policing, New Public Management, risk policing, the demand gap, Kansas City Preventative Patrol Experiment, COINTELPRO, problem-oriented policing, SARA, collators, Policing with Intelligence, Helping with Enquiries: Tackling Crime Effectively, the National Intelligence Model
Headings
Origins of intelligence-led policing
Drivers for change
Data and the performance culture
Managing risk
The demand gap
Limitations of the standard model of policing
Organised and transnational crime
Technological developments
The US policing landscape
Fragmented and uncoordinated
Viewpoint: Intelligence sharing and the role of fusion centers
Demonising intelligence
The community policing era
Slow emergence of problem-oriented policing
Rapid emergence of Compstat
9/11 and homeland security
The British policing landscape
New public managerialism and oversight
Sporadic emergence of problem-oriented policing in the UK
‘Helping with Enquiries’ and ‘Policing with Intelligence’
The National Intelligence Model
Summary
Abbreviations
DEA: Drug Enforcement Administration
FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation
NCA: National Crime Agency (UK)
CISC: Criminal Intelligence Service Canada
ACC: Australian Crime Commission
RISS: Regional Information Sharing Systems
NJ ROIC: New Jersey Regional Operations Intelligence Center
COINTELPRO: An FBI counterintelligence programme
NYPD: New York City Police Department
HIDTA: High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas
ACPO: Association of Chief Police Officers
NPM: New Public Management
HMIC: Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary
NIM: National Intelligence Model
Critical thinking questions
In what key ways has the development of intelligence-led policing in the US differed from development of intelligence-led policing in the UK?
While 9/11 might have galvanized the US towards greater information sharing, what impediments remain?
Is ILP significantly different from Compstat? If so, in what ways?
Chapter 3
Key terms:
crime funnel, National Crime Victimization Survey, Crime Survey of England and Wales, the dark figure of crime, detection rate, Philadelphia Police Department, chronic offenders, environmental criminology, near repeats, Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, gangs, organized and transnational crime, scaling up factor, criminal careers.
Headings:
The magnitude of the crime challenge
The crime funnel problem
How much crime gets reported?
How much crime is detected and prosecuted?
How many offenders are prosecuted and imprisoned?
Case study: The role of crime in the work of the Philadelphia Police
The offender problem
Individual offending and recidivism
Problem places
Gangs
Organised crime
Viewpoint: Assessing the scale and severity of organised crime
Predicting prolific offenders
Can the police identify prolific offenders?
Summary
Abbreviations
NCVS: National Crime Victimization Survey
CSEW: Crime Survey of England and Wales
PSNI: Police Service of Northern Ireland
FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation
CPTED: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
EU: European Union
OC: Organised crime
Critical thinking questions
Does the chapter make a cogent case for crime prevention activity?
In what way could the criminal justice system be most improved?
Discuss the major issues of predicting who might be a prolific offender. Consider both the operational challenges as well as the ethical dilemmas.
Chapter 4
Key terms
standard model of policing, community policing, problem-oriented policing, SARA, Compstat, broken windows policing, harm-focused policing, third party policing, problem-oriented policing, evidence-based policing, predictive policing.
Headings
Defining intelligence-led policing
Related policing frameworks
Community policing
Problem-oriented policing
Compstat
Related tactical or philosophical concepts
Conceptual confusion
Viewpoint: Policing conceptual frameworks from the analyst’s perspective
Intelligence-led policing defined
Original tenets
Revising the original model
Intelligence-led policing components
Summary
Abbreviations
IACP: International Association of Chiefs of Police
DARE: Drug Abuse Resistance Education
RCMP: Royal Canadian Mounted Police
POP: Problem-oriented policing
SARA: Scan (or scanning), Assess (or assessment), Respond (or response), Assess (or assessment)
OCR: Operation and Crime Review
GIWG: Global Intelligence Working Group
Critical thinking questions
Are the distinctions between the various policing strategies (POP, community policing, Compstat, ILP) as stark as suggested by the chapter? Explain your answer.
What theories of crime and deterrence appear to be central to intelligence-led policing?
In the last figure of the chapter, there is an overlap between ILP and POP, but it isn’t a complete overlap. Where are the main distinctions between intelligence-led policing and problem-oriented policing, and where are the commonalities?
Chapter 5
Key terms
criminal intelligence, crime analysis, intelligence, crime intelligence, collator, knowledge (worker, old, new), information, data, tactical intelligence, operational intelligence, strategic intelligence, the intelligence cycle, the SARA model, the NIM business model, the 3-i model.
Headings
Police decision-making
Awash with terminology
What is criminal intelligence?
What is crime analysis?
Data, information and knowledge?
DIKI continuum
From knowledge to intelligence
Levels of crime intelligence
NIM levels
Viewpoint: A practitioner’s perspective on the National Intelligence Model
Conceptualising analysis
NIM business model
The 3-i model
Can models reflect reality?
Summary
Abbreviations
ACPO: Association of Chief Police Officers (UK)
NCPE: National Centre for Policing Excellence (UK)
IALEIA: International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analysts
NIM: National Intelligence Model (UK)
DIKI: Data, Information, Knowledge, Intelligence
APP: Authorised Professional Practice (for intelligence management) (UK)
SARA: Scan (or scanning), Assess (or assessment), Respond (or response), Assess (or assessment)
Critical thinking questions
DIKI is Data, Information, Knowledge, and Intelligence. What is meant by the terms Information and Knowledge? Outline the differences between them.
Construct your own definition of criminal intelligence, and describe how you formulated each part of your definition.
Explain what you summarize to be the differences between operational intelligence and strategic intelligence.
Chapter 6
Key terms
modus operandi, community intelligence, confidential informants (also known as confidential human sources), authorised confidential human sources, information collation, intelligence requirements, opportunity theories, crime scripting, structured thinking, hypothesis testing, crime hot spots, harmful places, offender self-selection
Headings
Interpreting the criminal environment
Information sources
Crime reports
Community intelligence
Confidential informants
Electronic resources
Information collation
Information evaluation
Playing well with others
Improving information sharing
A role for liaison officers?
Viewpoint: The patrol intelligence coordinator programme
Analytical techniques
Crime mapping and spatial analysis
Structured thinking
Crime scripts
Hypothesis testing
Target selection
Threats, risks and harms
Crime hot spots and harmful places
Harmful offenders
Offender self-selection
Summary
Abbreviations
FBI: Federal Bureau of Investigation
JTTF: Joint Terrorism Task Force
ABCI: Australian Bureau of Criminal Intelligence
ROIC: Regional Operations Intelligence Center (New Jersey, US)
NCIS: National Criminal Intelligence Service (UK)
CISC: Criminal Intelligence Service Canada
Critical thinking questions
Describe how confidential informants might be used to generate strategic intelligence?
Discuss the sort of criminality or crimes that the information from confidential informants might be best applied to.
Pick three of the organisational pathologies and describe how you might eliminate or reduce them.
It has been more than a decade since the creation of a National Criminal Intelligence Sharing Plan. How would you rate its success in improving information sharing?
Chapter 7
Key terms
front-line officers, police leaders, regulatory agencies, sex-offender registration and notification schemes, security networks, nodal governance, NIM intelligence products, security networks, VOLTAGE, Center for Problem Oriented Policing.
Headings
Influencing decision-makers
Who are decision-makers?
Front-line officers
Police leadership
Regulatory agencies
The general public
Security networks
Understanding the client’s environment
Working with the audience
Maximising influence
What can police leaders do?
Types of intelligence products
Viewpoint: A local police commander’s perspective on intelligence use
Recommending action
Summary
Abbreviations
GMAC PBM: Greater Manchester Against Crime Partnership Business Model (UK)
PIER: Prevention, Intelligence, Enforcement and Reassurance
SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound
Critical thinking questions
Make a list of security networks in your region, and describe what type of network they are, based on Dupont’s four types of security network.
Imagine you are writing about a positive and recently evaluated burglary prevention strategy this might benefit from becoming a city-wide policy. The target of this product is the city’s mayor. How would you design and structure your report and feedback to maximise the chance of influencing the mayor?
This chapter deals with the activities of two actors: analyst and decision-makers. What changes can be made so that decision-makers can position themselves for maximally influential?
Chapter 8
Key terms
crime funnel, crime prevention, crime disruption, crime reduction, primary prevention, secondary prevention, tertiary prevention, Kansas City Gun Experiment, Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment, Philadelphia Policing Tactics Experiment, focused deterrence, the Koper Curve, stop-and-frisk, offender-focused tactics.
Headings
Having an impact on crime
Revisiting the crime funnel
Estimating prevention benefits
Reduction, disruption and prevention
The changing leadership role
Viewpoint: The leadership role in intelligence-led policing
Steering the rowers in the right direction
The police impact on crime
Does police targeting of crime hot spots prevent crime?
Does increasing arrests reduce crime?
Intelligence-led crime reduction
Summary
Abbreviations
HIDTA: High-Intensity Drug Trafficking Area
NJSP: New Jersey State Police (US)
NJ ROIC: New Jersey Regional Operations Intelligence Center (US)
NIM: National Intelligence Model (UK)
Critical thinking questions
Imagine if a ten per cent improvement in crime prevention were implemented in the crime funnel. What are the organisational challenges that might limit the benefits of this crime reduction further down the crime funnel?
What are the general lessons to be learned from the Philadelphia experiments?
This chapter focuses on deciding how to impact the criminal environment, but argues that that many decision-makers/leaders do not possess the experience or training to be fully literate in crime prevention. What needs to occur at the “interpret” and “influence” stages of the 3-i model for selected tactics to be effective?
Chapter 9
Key terms
FBI’s Next Generation Identification system, Geographical Information Systems, canopy of science, President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, information tsunami, New Zealand Police Policing Excellence and Prevention First, National Command and Coordination Centre, Real-Time Intelligence for Operational Deployment, near-repeat phenomenon, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (2000, UK), surveillance commissioner, Edward Snowden, directed surveillance, intrusive surveillance.
Headings
Technology and ILP
Technology and the 3-i model
Interpreting the criminal environment
Influencing decision-makers
Interpreting the criminal environment
Viewpoint: Technology-enabled crime prevention
Key technologies in intelligence-led policing
GIS
Predictive policing
Social media
Ethical challenges of big data
Summary
Abbreviations
GIS: Geographical Information Systems
NZP: New Zealand Police
NCCC: National Command and Coordination Centre (NZP)
ROID: Real-Time Intelligence for Operational Deployment (NZP)
GISc: Geographical Information Science
ANPR/ALPR: Automatic Number Plate Readers /Automatic License Plate Readers
Critical thinking questions
How has technology improved some criminal intelligence processes and exacerbated others?
Are police winning the social media war with criminals?
What new technologies, currently unexploited or developed, would advance intelligence-led policing?
How can police protect the civil liberties of citizens when using technology and social media?
Chapter 10
Key terms
rational approach to crime control, evaluation, outcome and process evaluations, Maryland Scientific Methods Scale, realistic evaluation or scientific realist approach, Operation Anchorage, residual deterrence effect, Operation Halite, Operation Vendas, Operation Safe Streets, crackdown decay, Philadelphia Policing Tactics Experiment, Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment, outcomes and outputs, UK National Criminal Intelligence Service’s Organised Vehicle Crime Programme. Operation Nine Connect, Operation Green Ice, Operation Green Ice II
Headings
Evaluating intelligence-led policing
Evaluation concepts and practices
What are we evaluating?
Types of evaluations
Pure evaluations and realistic evaluations
Case study: Operation Anchorage
Viewpoint: Refining strategy after Operation Anchorage
Examples of implementation failure
Measuring success in different ways
A project outcome litmus test
Financial efficiency
Surveillance and confidential informants
Measuring disruption
Measuring success in changing business practice
Measuring success in performance indicators
Summary
Abbreviations
ACT: Australian Capital Territory
AFP: Australian Federal Police
DEA: Drug Enforcement Administration
RCMP: Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Critical thinking questions
Select one element of the 3-i model, and design a process and outcome evaluation for its effectiveness during a discrete operation.
How could policing be changed so that it can become more receptive to evaluation, and possibly failure?
Imagine a new crime prevention initiative (for example, concentrated foot patrols or automatic license plate readers) and ask five friends to take Ratcliffe’s project outcome litmus test. Explain any similarities or differences.
Select one type of organised crime, and consider different ways that its impact on society could be estimated.
Chapter 11
Key terms
Wood Royal Commission, New South Wales Police Force, Stephen Lawrence, Macpherson Report, principle of proportionality, Title 28 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 23 (28CFR23), UK Data Protection Act 1998, Bichard Inquiry, European Convention on Human Rights, Four P Framework for Prevention, ten yardsticks for intelligence-led policing
Headings
Challenges for the future
The challenges of covert activity
The risks of greater informant use in covert activities
Principle of proportionality
Managing criminal information
Human rights and surveillance
Viewpoint: Data, public safety and police legitimacy
The widening security agenda
Greater strategic application
Managing criminal intelligence and national security
An agenda for the future
Conceptual training for analysts and executives
Looking beyond the tactical imperatives
Engaging the next cohort of police leaders
Ten yardsticks for intelligence-led policing
Summary
Abbreviations
ACPO: Association of Chief Police Officers (UK)
28CFR23: Title 28 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 23
ECHR: The European Convention on Human Rights
IALEIA: International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analysts
IACA: International Association of Crime Analysts
Critical thinking questions
Is a minor and localised infringement of perceived liberties an acceptable trade-off and tolerable if it creates a safer environment and (through a diffusion of benefits) extends the social benefits to surrounding areas? Discuss any arguments for and against.
Imagine you are in charge of transforming your organisation into one that is underpinned by ILP. Select one item the agenda for the future and discuss how it could be achieved. Briefly discuss what factors are inhibiting your selected item from occurring, and how you might be able to circumvent these.
Of the ten yardsticks, which do you think is the most difficult for police agencies to implement, and why?