Fourth Lateran Council
In the fourth of five councils convened by the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Innocent III brought together church leaders and theologians in Rome in 1215. It was one of the largest gatherings of the middle ages, with hundreds of bishops and priests attending. The Council dealt with the difficult issue of transubstantiation and made the requirement for all Catholics to make at least one confession a year, preferably around Easter, in order to be considered members of the Church. The Council also determined that Jews and Muslims resident in Christian territories should also be compelled to wear special dress, thus marking them out as non-Christians.
Venice Establishes a 'National Debt'
The Republic of Venice drew its wealth and prosperity from the development of a seaborne trading empire that eventually stretched from the north end of the Adriatic Sea to Constantinople, Cyprus, and connected to India via Egypt. Trade by sea, however, required the development and maintenance of a large navy, which was a very expensive proposition and one that carried high levels of risk for the state. The Venetians chose to address this problem by nationalising debt, meaning that the state would allow private individuals to loan it money in return for a promise of being repaid at a certain time with an agreed interest rate. This solution allowed the government to tap into the resources of individual citizens whilst co-opting those citizens into supporting government policies (thereby helping to assure their return on the investment). In the event of failure, risk was spread so that in theory no single investor (including the government) would be ruined. National debt also permitted Venice to embark on highly expensive projects in a sustainable manner, particularly military campaigns, it would not otherwise have been able to afford. The development of this system has had a profound and lasting impact on state building and public finance in Europe.
Council of Constance
The Council, convened at Constance between 1414 and 1418, was tasked with healing the Great Schism in the Catholic Church. Several important political actors, including the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund pressed for its creation. The Council affected a resolution to the Schism, through protracted negotiation and debate, by deposing or forcing the resignation of the three antipopes, and electing a new pope, Martin V. The Council also reacted against reforms proposed by Jas Hus, a Czech priest. Like later critics of the Catholic Church, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, Hus questioned elements of Catholicism to the anger of Church authorities. He was burned at the stake during the Council. These actions are part of a larger agenda at the Council to restore papal authority.
Treaty of Troyes
An important milestone of the Hundred Years’ War, this treaty signed at Troyes, France in the spring of 1420 was an agreement that Henry V of England would succeed to the French throne upon the death of Charles VI of France. Negotiated in the wake of the stunning English victory at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the Treaty of Troyes was an attempt to secure an end to the dynastic struggles between England and France. Charles VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity, agreed to marry his daughter Catherine to Henry V. The deaths of Henry and Charles within weeks of each other in 1422, however, prevented the lasting resolution that had been intended. The Hundred Years’ War continued for another quarter-century until final French military success put paid to English ambitions to the French throne (although English monarchs continued to lay formal claim to the French crown until the end of the eighteenth century).
Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople
The city of Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Founded by Roman emperor Constantine in 330 CE as the administrative centre of the eastern half of the Roman Empire, the city became one of the largest and most cosmopolitan in the world with a fabled concentration of wealth. Built astride the Bosporus, the strait connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean, the city connected continental Europe with Asia and the world beyond. Although, by the end of the fifteenth century the Byzantine Empire had become territorially small and impoverished, Constantinople remained an important symbol of Christian achievement and historical connection with the glories of Rome. By 1453, the Ottomans, a highly organised and militarily capable people originating in the east of present-day Turkey, had extended their territorial control to almost all of Anatolia. Led by Sultan Mehmed II (1432-1481; r. 1444-6, 1451-81), the Ottoman campaign of 1453 deployed skilful use of artillery to breach Constantinople’s walls, leading to the fall of the city and the final destruction of the Byzantine Empire. In Europe, the fall of the city meant that the approaches to central Europe lay open to invasion and Ottoman armies eventually reached the walls of Vienna.
Gutenberg Bible Printed in Mainz
Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1395-1468) had during the 1440s developed the technology to create printed books. One of his first major projects was the creation of a printed edition of the Bible. In and of itself a non-controversial act, the publication of a Bible using moveable type at a speed, volume, and price unattainable through hand transcription opened up the possibilities for printed materials across the spectrum. Whilst the Bibles themselves are perhaps now amongst the rarest and most valuable books ever printed, through their production Gutenberg proved that printed material could have widespread appeal and helped herald a revolution in how information and ideas were transmitted.
William Caxton Sets Up First Printing Press in England
William Caxton (c. 1422-1491) was a member of London’s Mercer’s Company who made regular visits to continental Europe. Whilst in Cologne, he became acquainted with the printing press developed by Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1395-1468). Seeing a significant opportunity, he quickly learned as much as he could about printing and brought his knowledge back to England. He is credited with publishing both the first book in English, The Recuyell of the Histories of Troye (published in Bruges, c. 1475) and the earliest known dated book printed in England, The Dicts and Sayenges of the Philosophers (1477). Caxton’s work had a significant influence on the English language, as printed and widely disseminated material helped the process of standardising the English language.
Gentile Bellini Sent to Paint Ottoman Sultan Mehemed II
Gentile Bellini (c. 1429-1507) was the member of a family of Venetian painters. He was sent, in 1479, to Constantinople as part of a Venetian diplomatic mission. Venice and the Ottomans were in the midst of a long-running struggle for control of trade and territory in the eastern Mediterranean. Both recognised the commercial benefits to peaceful trade, and so attempted when possible to use diplomacy instead of force. Knowing that Sultan Mehemed II (1432-1481; r. 1444-6 and 1451-81) was eager to have greater cultural contact with Italy, Bellini was sent to paint his portrait in an effort to secure diplomatic capital. Bellini’s trip and other works helped spread information about and generate interest in the Ottoman empire at a time when it was seen as very foreign and extremely hostile.
Henry Tudor Defeats Richard III of England at Bosworth Field
The final major battle of the War of the Roses, the Battle of Bosworth Field saw the forces of King Richard III (1452-85; r. 1483-5) defeated by those loyal to Henry Tudor (1457-1509; r. as Henry VII 1485-1509). Richard, of the House of York, had gained the English throne after the death of his older brother Edward IV (1442-1483) and his nephews (the ‘Princes in the Tower’, who Richard had declared illegitimate and thus not able to inherit the throne), although there were questions as to the legality of the tactics he used. In contrast, supporters of the House of Lancaster, rallied behind Henry Tudor. With strong support from Wales, Henry Tudor raised an army and marched into England. At Bosworth, near Leicester, Richard’s forces met the invaders. Numerically superior, Richard’s forces were beset by issues, including the defection of key nobles at critical moments in battle. Richard himself was killed in combat. Since he had no male heirs, Henry Tudor was able to seize control of the English throne, founding the Tudor dynasty (that included Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I). After his victory Henry Tudor turned the battle into a major piece of propaganda, vilifying Richard III and projecting the Tudor victory as the triumph of good over evil, a strategy that was particularly successful (see, for example, William Shakespeare’s Richard III). Although unquestionably a watershed moment in English political history, and one that had significant later consequences for wider Europe, later appraisals of Richard show him to be an able ruler and not the monster the Tudors made him out to be.
Treaty of Tordesillas
The Treaty of Tordesillas was a commercial and political agreement between the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile and Portugal. Signed 1494, the Treaty formalised the details of a papal bull issued the year before that had given control of the Americas to Aragon and Castile and of Africa and India to Portugal. The Treaty itself altered the bull in a manner that allowed Portugal to lay claim to what is now Brazil.
Charles VIII Enters Naples
An event of the Italian Wars. King Charles VIII of France (1470-89; r. 1483-89) had been promised the throne of the Kingdom of Naples (on which he had a slim dynastic claim) by Pope Innocent VIII to help the latter in his power struggles on the Italian peninsula. Charles personally led an army into Italy, and it reached Naples in the early winter of 1495 where he deposed the king and was himself crowed King of Naples.
French Conquest of Milan
Milan was a rich and powerful city state in northern Italy. By the end of the fifteenth century, Milan’s rulers paid Swiss mercenaries to protect the city. As a part of the Italian Wars, the French were able to defeat these forces and capture the city in 1499. Milan changed hands several times before finally being acquired by the Spanish Habsburgs in 1525.
League of Cambrai
Political turmoil in Italy had prevented any one of the many competing states, cities and individuals from gaining dominance. One exception to this was Venice. That city-republic based its economic stability and security on a seaborne commercial empire extending down the Adriatic and into the eastern Mediterranean. This allowed Venice to continue to grow and prosper, despite the ongoing wars in Italy. Worried by the potential long-term problems that a strong Venice could pose, Pope Julius II (1443-1513; r. 1503-12) organised a collation including the Holy Roman Empire, France, Aragon, and many of the Italian city-states (the ‘League of Cambrai’) to resist Venetian expansionism. This phase of the Italian Wars is often referred to as the 'War of the League of Cambrai' and continued until 1516. The League itself was relatively short lived, before succumbing to infighting and mistrust. Whilst Venice was dealt short-term set-backs (such as its loss at Battle of Agnadello in 1509) they were not defeated in the long-term.
Battle of Agnadello
A major battle of the Italian Wars between France (acting as part of the League of Cambrai) and Venice. The French forces, under the personal command of King Louis XII (1462-1515; r. 1498-1515) were able to defeat two of Venice’s most experienced generals. Forced to retreat, Venice left its possessions in Lombardy undefended and lost much of the territory and influence it had tried to build up over the preceding years.
France Regains Control of Milan
In one of the many reversals of the Italian Wars, France re-took Milan in 1515. Originally conquered by France in 1499, the city had changed hand several times since then. After their expulsion from Lombardy in 1512, the French regrouped and resupplied before again crossing the Alps and capturing the city. Eventually, they would again lose control of Milan but at the time this was an important victory for King Francis I (1494-1547; r. 1515-1547).
Jewish Ghetto Established in Venice
In Venice, the government established a separate quarter for the Jewish population in 1516. Named after a local foundry and surrounded by walls, similar 'ghettos' emerged in other cities. Jews were forced to live within these areas and confined there at night.
Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
Often cited as the foundation document of the Protestant Reformation and allegedly nailed to a door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg, the Ninety-Five Theses were Martin Luther’s (1483-1546) denunciation of the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church. The practice, which raised significant revenues for the Church, meant that Christians could pay money to reduce the time their souls would spend in purgatory after death. Luther saw this practice as being one of the worst in a Church riddled by worldliness and corruption. By speaking against such sales, Luther hoped to prompt reforms that would re-focus the Church on spiritual – rather than commercial and political – concerns. The Theses were a touchstone of fierce debate and conflict that led ultimately to the development of non-Catholic branches of Christianity.
Charles V Issues Edict of Worms
A landmark moment in the development of the Reformation, the Edict of Worms was issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500-58; r. 1519-56) at the Diet held there in 1521. Following Martin Luther’s publication of his Ninety-Five Theses denouncing the worldliness and venality of the Catholic Church, Pope Leo X had excommunicated the reformer a few months earlier and ordered secular authorities to put him under a ban. The Edict declared Luther a heretic and forbade Catholics from aiding or assisting him on pain of eternal damnation. Whilst political circumstances prevented its full enforcement, the Edict symbolized the religious division within the Empire.
Battle of Pavia
The Battle of Pavia in 1525 was a major engagement of the Italian Wars. Fought between French forces under the command of King Francis I (1494-1547; r. 1515-47) and Spanish/Holy Roman Empire forces, the battle was a crushing defeat for France. Francis was taken prisoner and French noble leadership and troops suffered massive losses. The French were forced to retreat across the Alps leaving Milan open to be re-taken by forces loyal to Emperor Charles V (1500-58; r. 1519-56). This significant rise in the power of Charles’ forces alarmed many and led to the establishment of the League of Cognac to help contain Spanish ambitions.
League of Cognac
Another twist in the complex series of alliances and arrangements that comprised the Italian Wars, the League of Cognac was an attempt to contain Charles V’s (1500-1558; r. 1519-1556) forces after his decisive defeat of French forces at the Battle of Pavia (1525). Brokered by Pope Clement VII (1478-1534; r. 1523-1534), the League drew together the forces of France, Venice, and various Italian city-states. Charles and his forces continued their successes and were able to defeat all their adversaries, leading to the fall and sack of Rome in 1527. The League disintegrated in the face of its defeats.
Sack of Rome
Pope Clement VII (1478-1534; r. 1523-1534) was the political leader of the anti-Spanish League of Cognac. Troops loyal to or employed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500-1558; r. 1519-1556) had defeated French resistance but morale was low and the troops were unpaid. When Charles’ army reached Rome in the spring of 1527 they laid siege. During the assault, a respected Spanish commander was killed and Charles’ troops mutinied. Eventually, they defeated Rome’s defenders and looted the city. Many were killed (including thousands of militia men and most members of the pope's Swiss guard) and much damage was done to the city, reducing its population and prestige for years to come. Clement VII was captured by Charles’ troops, but the event embarrassed the Emperor. It also caused Clement in future to steer a political course that did not antagonise Charles, further diminishing his power.
Colloquy of Marburg
Whilst Lutheranism was gaining political recognition in the Holy Roman Empire, culminating in its legal sanction at the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, it was not the only strand of reformist thinking. Swiss theologian Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) was also developing a form of Protestantism that differed from Luther’s thinking in subtle but significant ways Protestant reformers, concerned that competing strands would divide the movement and make it more susceptible to Catholic repression, attempted to bring Luther and Zwingli together to resolve their differences. Eventually, a meeting was arranged in October 1529 in Marburg, Hesse. It was the only time Luther and Zwingli met and whilst the two were able to agree on many issues they were not able to reconcile their differences over the Eucharist. The result was that two distinct Protestant denominations developed within the Empire, later to be complemented by the followers of Calvin.
Ottoman Forces Lay Seige to Vienna
Following their conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans pursued an aggressive policy of expansion into Europe. Greece and the territories that now comprise Romania, Bulgaria, and the former Yugoslavia were all captured. By the early sixteenth century Ottoman armies had moved through Hungary and they reached Vienna by 1529. This caused panic in Christian Europe as it was felt that should Vienna be captured then the rest of the continent would fall to the Ottomans. The Ottomans were led personally by Sultan Suleiman I ('the Magnificent'; 1494-1566; r. 1520-66) and were resisted by Imperial forces, as well as troops loyal to the King of Bohemia and Spain. Vienna was besieged by the Ottoman forces in the fall of 1529 but poor weather and vulnerable supply lines forced them to withdraw. Whilst the threat of Ottoman expansion into central Europe remained for at least another century and a half, the siege of Vienna represented the maximum extent of their expansion into Europe.
Protestation of Speyer
In a reaction to the Edict of Worms (1521), six Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire and 14 Free Cities – representing a minority in the Empire’s Diet or legislative body – petitioned the Diet, during its 1529 meeting at the German city of Speyer, to lift the ban on Martin Luther and argued for the unhindered spreading of Luther’s works and teachings. It was a ‘protest’ in favour of Luther, and his supporters were labelled ‘Protestants’, thus giving a formal (if initially pejorative) name to the whole movement. The Protestation (commemorated by a dedicated church at Speyer) was an important moment in the Reformation as it demonstrated considerable political support for Protestantism and highlighted growing acceptance of the Reformation’s criticism of the Roman Catholic Church.
Augsburg Confession
Luther's followers made a formal submission to the Imperial Diet (the legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire) at Augsburg in an attempt to justify their position. Written in both German and Latin (hence known as the Confessio Augustana or Augustana), it contained 21 articles considered fundamental to the Christian faith and seven condemning Catholic errors. It was drafted by Lutheran theologians and presented to the Diet by several Lutheran princes and cities. Following its rejection by Charles V (1500-58; r. 1519-56), the religious division within the Empire became more formalized. The Confession represents the fundamental statement of Lutheran beliefs and was incorporated into the Formula of Concord (1580).
Anabaptist Takeover of Münster
Münster, a large commercial centre in western Germany, was taken over by Anabaptists in 1534-5. Several branches of this radical Protestant group had emerged from the 1520s. Their followers, who sought to return to a primitive version of Christianity and practiced adult baptism, attempted to create a new Jerusalem in preparation for the second coming of Christ. Strong opposition from both Catholics and Lutherans led to the city being quickly besieged. Retaken in the summer of 1535, the rebellion’s leaders were tried and executed, their bodies being hung in cages from church steeples.
Charles V Captures Tunis
As part of Charles V’s (1500-1558; r. 1519-1556) extensive military campaigns, an expedition was mounted in 1535 to capture the African city of Tunis, then under control of the Ottoman empire. The campaign, well provisioned and led, was very successful and Spanish/Holy Roman Empire troops sacked the city. It also became apparent from evidence found in the city that the French had been providing arms to Ottoman forces. The defeat advanced negotiations between the Ottoman empire and France who eventually agreed a commercial treaty.
Ottomans Retain Algiers
Hoping to build upon his successful conquest of Tunis in 1535, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500-1558; r. 1519-1556) organised a campaign to take Algiers, another strategically important north-African territory under Ottoman control. Unlike his victory six years before, this attempt was a disaster with considerable loss of life and materiel. This defeat nearly cost Charles his life and ended his practical ambitions to gain further territory in north Africa. The victory also stabilised Ottoman forces in the region.
Council of Trent
A major landmark in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Trent (1545-63) was summoned by Pope Paul III to deal with the issues exposed by the Reformation. Specifically, the Council addressed perceived abuses, such as the sale of indulgences, but also re-affirmed key pillars of Catholic doctrine, the primacy of the Pope and the spiritual authority of the Church. Lasting results included a strengthening of episcopal control, the foundation of seminaries for the education of priests and a reinvigoration of Catholicisim in Europe and beyond.
Battle of Mühlberg
A major victory for Charles V (1500-58; r. 1519-56), the battle was fought in Saxony between Imperial (Catholic) troops and the (Protestant) armies of the League of Schmalkalden. The Emperor captured the leading Protestant commanders, Elector John Frederick of Saxony and Landgrave Philip of Hesse. Although it ended the League, Charles was unable to stem the rise of Protestantism or bring the League’s members back into the fold of the Catholic Church. The battle led to the Interim of Augsburg in 1548 and the eventual Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555.
Interim of Augsburg
The Interim of Augsburg was a decree of the Holy Roman Empire’s Imperial Diet (a representative assembly with legislative powers) dealing with Emperor Charles V’s (1500-58; r.1519-56) victory over the League of Schmalkalden at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. While it attempted to force Protestants back into the Catholic Church, including requiring them to attend mass and take the sacrament (leading to fierce resistance by many reformers), the Interim actually started to legally enshrine elements of Protestantism (such as allowing Lutheran clergy to marry) and stands as an important milestone on the road to the legitimisation of Protestantism as a valid strand of Christianity.
France Captures Metz
French king Henry II (1519-1559; r. 1547-1559) pursued the aggressive military policy against Charles V (1500-1558; r. 1519-1556) started by his father, Francis I (1494-1547; r. 1515-1547). In part, this involved, capturing the independent cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun. These important cities were ruled by prince-bishops loyal to the Holy Roman Empire and occupied strategic positions on the borders of the French kingdom. By capturing them, an event secured at the Battle of Renty in 1554, Henry was able to further secure his kingdom and make it more difficult for Charles’ forces to mount campaigns into France.
Religious Peace of Augsburg
A treaty agreed in the Imperial Free City of Augsburg that formally ended the War of the League of Schmalkalden. Ferdinand I (1503-64; r. 1558-64), soon to become Holy Roman Emperor, agreed to the Peace on behalf of the Empire. The Peace recognised Lutheranism as the sole Protestant confession allowed within the Empire, thus legally enshrining the Reformation. Lutherans were allowed to live alongside Catholics in the Empire and each of the Empire’s numerous component territories was to adhere to the faith of its ruler. The failure to accept Calvinists and other non-Lutheran Protestants led to conflicts in the Empire and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years War.
Genevan Academy founded
The Genevan Academy, founded in 1559, became an important model of clerical education and a source of countless preachers helping to spread Calvinist teaching across Europe.
Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis
A treaty signed in the spring of 1559 at Cateau-Cambrésis (located in the Spanish Netherlands, now modern France) that officially ended the Italian Wars. The peace conference saw Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain agree to terms delineating spheres of influence and areas of control for both countries in respect to the Italian states. In particular, Spain retained control of several important sections of Italy including the commercially important city of Milan and Naples and Sicily in the south. Only Venice and Savoy retained any form of independence from foreign powers. The Peace was also notable for the death of the French king Henry II, killed in a jousting accident during the celebrations following the signing of the treaty.
Academy of Art Founded in Florence
A humanist project of the Renaissance, the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno was founded by Florentine ruler Cosimo I de’Medici (1519-74) in 1563. The Accademia served as a training centre and trade guild for active artists as well as a meeting place and social area for eminent artists. Its model had significant influence on other national art movements. Members included many significant artists active in Italy, including Michelangelo. The organisation was reorganized at the end of the eighteenth century, and the Accademia di Belle Arti remains active to this day.
Ottoman Forces Fail to Capture Malta
Marking a significant victory for beleaguered Christian forces against the powerful and well-organised Ottoman empire, the Siege of Malta in 1565 was a bloody and violent campaign that gained wide-spread notoriety. Malta, an island south of Italy, was of significant strategic importance. It had been held by the Christian Knights Hospitaller since 1530 and was a major political, cultural, and economic crossroads in the central Mediterranean. The Ottoman empire, with its strong navy and territorial possessions in north Africa, desired the island as it would secure regional dominance and allow them to threaten Italy and Spain more effectively. Suleiman the Magnificent (1494-1566; r. 1520-1566), the Ottoman Sultan, ordered the invasion and a massive Ottoman fleet set out. Despite initial success, the Knights Hospitaller and Maltese citizens, aided eventually by Spanish and Sicilian forces, held out for nearly four months before finally forcing Ottoman forces to retreat with heavy casualties. Whilst the Christian victory did not change Ottoman dominance immediately, it was a significant moral victory and secured Malta from future attack.
Union of Lubin
The Union of Lublin established the Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania.
Battle of Lepanto
In October of 1571 a naval battle was fought in the Gulf of Cornith (in Greece, formerly known as the Gulf of Lepanto) between the Holy League, a coalition of European Christian powers, and the Ottoman fleet. The battle formed part of a long running struggle in the eastern Mediterranean. Overall, Ottoman forces had maintained the upper hand, successfully expelling the Venetians from Cyprus earlier in the year and restricting trade generally. Nevertheless, the Holy League mounted a spirited offence in 1571 and secured a victory at Lepanto. The battle was the first naval defeat for the Ottomans in nearly a century. Despite its considerable positive affect on European morale, the Ottoman navy was rebuilt quickly and the Holy League was unable to capitalize in any lasting way on the advantage they secured.
Spanish Naval Armada Defeated by the English
Prior to the accession of Elizabeth I (1533-1603; r. 1558-1603) to the English throne, Philip II of Spain (1527-1598; r. 1556-1598) had been co-monarch of England with Elizabeth’s sister Mary I (1516-1558; r. 1553-1558). As a devout Catholic, Philip considered the Protestant Elizabeth to be a heretic and thus an illegitimate monarch. In order to regain the English throne, Philip organised a vast invasion fleet called the Armada. With Spain’s vast resources and the backing of the pope (who declared Philip’s invasion a crusade), Philip and the Catholic world were confident of an easy victory. In the event, however, poor planning and preparation on the part of the Spanish, terrible weather, and stiff English resistance caused the Armada to be a total failure. Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540-1596) was able to raid Cadiz in 1587, destroying considerable material and delaying the invasion. Other military action on the part of the English also prevented the Spanish from coordinating their forces (especially with the armies based in the Netherlands) and resulted in the loss of nearly a third of the Spanish ships and a considerable number of men and supplies. The defeat of the Spanish, Europe’s most powerful state, by the small and relatively poor English boosted Elizabeth’s reputation immeasurably at home as well as in Protestant circles abroad and had a lasting cultural impact in England. The defeat ended active Spanish attempts to invade England but did little to blunt Spanish power on the continent.
Edict of Nantes Issued by Henry VI
French King Henry IV (1553-1610; r. 1589-1610) had been born a Protestant but converted to Catholicism in 1593, having survived the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572) that was partially prompted by his wedding. Whilst king, he sought to repair damage done to French society by the Wars of Religion. One element of this plan was his issue of the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The Edict extended official tolerance and political protection to Protestants in France. Protestants were granted many civil rights and were allowed to worship in both public and private. The Edict was highly unpopular amongst the Catholic majority in France. King Louis XIV revoked the Edict in 1685.
Gunpowder Plot in England
The Gunpowder Plot was an attempt to assassinate King James I (1566-1625; r. 1603-25) at the opening of Parliament on 5 November 1605, by detonating a massive explosion in a cellar under the House of Lords. After persecution under Elizabeth I (1533-1603; r. 1558-1603), Catholic hopes for toleration were high upon James’s accession in 1603. When these hopes were disappointed, a small group of Catholics planned direct action. Though the Plot has become associated with the name of Guy Fawkes, the leader was a Warwickshire gentleman, Robert Catesby. After the Plot was discovered, Catesby and three others were killed resisting arrest; a further nine were executed. Some historians have claimed the Plot itself was planned by James’s chief minister, Robert Cecil, the first earl of Salisbury, to discredit Catholics. This is improbable, though it seems likely that Salisbury knew about it some time before Guy Fawkes was dramatically arrested with the gunpowder on the night of 4/5 November. The consequences for the English Catholic community were severe. The 1606 Parliament passed further penal statutes and a new Oath of Allegiance was imposed. Persecution died down, however, as James sought a marital alliance with Spain. More significant in the longer term was the role of the Plot in contributing to the tradition of ‘anti-popery’ which was to remain a prominent feature of English culture for the next three hundred years.
Amsterdam Bank Founded
The Amsterdam Bank was an early attempt to centralise and guarantee banking activities. Founded in the town hall in 1609, the Amsterdam Bank operated under the auspices of the city in order to regulate the quality of money circulating. Due to the relative lack of coinage in early modern Europe, coins circulated for years and were slowly worn down and debased. By collecting this money and then issuing ‘bank money’, the Amsterdam Bank (and others like it) provided greater certainty to both merchants and consumers that their transactions were fair. Although the Amsterdam Bank itself had numerous troubles and closed in the early nineteenth century, it helped develop the model of a central bank that is familiar today. Banks such as the Amsterdam Bank also advanced the concept of credit, which in turn helped joint stock companies and other forms of collective risk management prosper.
Synod of Dordrecht
A synod – an ecclesiastical body used by various Christian denominations to settle matters relating to church organization or doctrine – was held by the Dutch Reformed church in the city of Dordrecht in 1619. Controversy had occurred because of the rise of Arminianism, a school of thought that differed from mainstream Protestantism on issues of relating to how a believer achieves salvation. Arminianism was eventually condemned by the Synod but the meeting did help to moderate more conservative elements within the Dutch ecclesiastical establishment. The Synod is also notable for its decision to invite members of Reformed churches from outside the Netherlands to participate in its proceedings.
Battle of the White Mountain
An early battle in the Thirty Years’ War, the Battle of the White Mountain saw the decisive defeat of the forces of Frederick (1596-1632; r. 1619-1620), the ‘Winter King’, who had been elected King of Bohemia in 1619. The defeat ended the Bohemian Uprising and saw Frederick of Styria (1578-1637) crowned King of Bohemia (and, as Emperor Matthias had died, Holy Roman Emperor) but did little to prevent the development of a larger conflict.
Parlement of Paris Requires Automatic Appeal of Cases from Lower Courts
Parlements were a type of court in pre-Revolutionary France. They represented the king’s justice and were the highest judiciary body outside the king himself. Although there were several parlements, the one based in Paris was the most senior within French royal domains and exerted considerable influence over the others. They could be very politically active bodies, interpreting royal legislation and at times even refusing to support measures with which they disagreed. When, in 1624, the parlement in Paris was given the power to examine all judgements passed by lower courts, this both increased the power of that body and helped to standardise legal practices across much of France. Such standardisation meant that regional practices or local interpretations of laws became harder to sustain, although France was still a very long way away from a national legal framework. Legal proceedings remained highly imbalanced, with members of the nobility and emergent bourgeoisie receiving considerable better treatment than others.
Battle of Lutter
Fought near the Lower Saxon town of Lutter am Barenberge, the Battle of Lutter was a crushing defeat of Danish forces by an Imperial army led by Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly (1559-1632). Tilly was a skilled general and had constructed a well-disciplined army. His troops were able to out manoeuvre their Danish opponents and win a decisive victory. The defeat of the Danes at Lutter effectively ended active Danish participation in the Thirty Years’ War. Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway (1557-1648; r. 1588-1648) was forced to sign a peace treaty with the empire that strictly forbade further participation in the conflict. The Danes, nevertheless, retained a strong military presence and were able to give tacit support to the Swedes upon their entry into the war.
Battle of Breitenfeld
A major defeat of Imperial forces under the Count of Tilly (1559-1632), the Battle of Breitenfeld saw Swedish and Saxon forces destroy a large army. Led by Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus (or Gustav II Adolf; 1594-1632; r. 1611-32), the Protestant army routed its Catholic opponents giving the first Protestant victory over Catholic forces in the Thirty Years’ War. Although the conflict continued for some time, Breitenfeld showed that Emperor Ferdinand II’s (1578-1637; r. 1619-37) policies, such as the 1629 Edict of Restitution would not be implemented unopposed. Indeed, it has been argued that Protestant victory at Breitenfeld helped saved the Protestant cause. The victory also proved that Gustavus Adolphus’ tactics were revolutionary and successful and cemented Sweden’s reputation as a European power until Swedish forces were defeated decisively at the Battle of Nördlingen in 1634.
Battle of Lützen
Although Swedish troops soundly defeated forces of the Holy Roman Empire and Catholic league at the 1632 Battle of Lützen (near Leipzig), Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus (or Gustav II Adolf; 1594-1632; r. 1611-32) was killed at the height of the battle. For the Protestant cause, his death was a significant setback. Due to Gustavus Adolphus’ dynamic personality and his armies’ successes (particularly in 1631 at Breitenfeld, the first Protestant victory in the Thirty Years’ War), he had become a natural leader for Protestants and his death made their cause lose some of its focus and drive. The Swedes remained a formidable fighting force, but much of their lustre was lost. With Gustavus Adolphus’ heir a minor, a regency was appointed to govern in his place. Without a strong central personality, Sweden drifted from the centre of both the Protestant and anti-Habsburg groups.
Galileo’s Trial in Rome
Whereas Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) had enjoyed a good relationship with the Roman Church and published his works at the behest of the pope, Galileo Galillei’s (1514-1564) ideas had no such official sanctioning. Furthermore, Galileo was particularly outspoken in support of his own findings. Specifically, Galileo’s published observations advocated a heliocentric model of the solar system. This not only went against the accepted models of universal motion but also contradicted directly Christian scripture that posited that God had put earth at the centre of creation. Caught up in the politics of the Papal Court, Galileo was declared a heretic and brought to a trial before the Roman Inquisition. Forced to choose between his work and the threat of excommunication (or worse) from the Church, Galileo reluctantly recanted and was heavily sanctioned by the Church. Living the rest of his life under house arrest, Galileo nevertheless continued his work in opposition to Church teachings. In doing so, he secured his reputation as a scientist who persevered in the face of persecution.
Battle of Nördlingen
After a phase of Protestant/anti-Habsburg ascendency following the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631, Imperial forces were able to regain the initiative with their decisive defeat of combined Swedish and Protestant forces at the (first) Battle of Nördlingen in 1634. Joining an Imperial army with Spanish forces marching north from Italy (much of which was then under Spanish control), Ferdinand of Hungary (son of Emperor Ferdinand II and himself later Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand III; 1608-1657; r. 1637-57) presented a threat to Protestant territories in southern Germany that the latter could not ignore. Despite a well-led corps, Protestant forces were out manned, out manoeuvred, and out fought. The victory allowed Imperial forces to gain undisputed control of a corridor between northern Italy and the Spanish Netherlands, a situation that compelled France to take an active role against Spanish/Imperial ambitions.
Peace of Prague
Despite important foreign involvement (particularly that of France, Spain, Denmark, and Sweden), until the mid-1630s the Thirty Years’ War had been largely a civil war within the Holy Roman Empire. Both Catholic and Protestant factions had achieved periods of ascendency but neither side had been able to make definitive gains. Moreover, central Germany had been ravaged by the conflict and religious communities had been pitted against each other. With the attempt of Emperor Ferdinand II (1578-1637; r. 1619-37) to impose the Catholic confession through the Edict of Restitution in 1629> the religious gulf within the Empire was wider than ever. Finally exhausted by 1635, both major groups within the Empire agreed to a peace treaty ending the civil war. The treaty saw the Edict of Restitution rescinded, the forbidding of intra-Empire alliances (such as the Catholic League), the establishment of an Imperial army and the disbandment of territorial armies, and a general amnesty for all princes and individuals who had fought against the Emperor. Although the Peace of Prague did not end all hostilities or solve all the antecedent problems that had caused the Thirty Years’ War, it was a major stepping-stone to the epochal Peace of Westphalia in 1648 that re-organized the European states system.
Parlement of Paris Forbids Prosecutions for Witchcraft Within its Jurisdiction
A wave of witchcraft prosecutions swept over Europe in the beginning of the seventeenth century. While many local groups and regional bodies took action – often quite summary and brutal – legal bodies were also involved. The parlements, France’s system of courts empowered to enforce the king’s laws, were often called upon to weigh cases of witchcraft. Because it automatically reviewed the judgements of lower courts within its area of oversight, the Paris parlement examined all witchcraft convictions. With the local panic removed, the number of prosecutions upheld began to drop significantly after about 1620. By the end of the 1630s, the quality and effectiveness of witchcraft prosecutions had been brought into considerable question and the value of such trials became highly suspect. Therefore, in 1640, the parlement in Paris refused to allow any prosecutions of witchcraft. It should be noted that this did not necessarily mean that suspected witches stopped being tried in other courts but is a general indication of the lessening of the panic over witchcraft in western Europe.
Battle of Rocroi
The Battle of Rocroi was a major engagement in the phase of the Thirty Years’ War that saw France and Spain in direct conflict. Located in northern France, Rocroi was a fortified town with strategic value to Spanish forces defending the Spanish Netherlands. In the spring of 1643, Spanish troops attempted to take the town and were met by a strong French force. The French soundly defeated the Spanish forces. At the time the French made skilful use of the victory in propaganda, depicting the defeat as the final breaking of Spanish military dominance in northwestern Europe. Spanish forces recovered quickly, however.
Masaniello Leads Anti-Spanish Revolt in Naples
The Kingdom of Naples, occupying the southern end of the Italian Peninsula, was a Spanish possession in the seventeenth century. As such, it was involved in the Thirty Years’ War, a conflict that was deeply unpopular in the kingdom. The Habsburg government imposed heavy measures of taxation and were seen as inept managers. When tensions reached breaking point and rioting began, Tommaso Aniello (more popularly known as Masaniello; 1622-47) stepped forward and became the populist leader of a full-scale revolt in Naples. Masaniello attempted to negotiate with the Habsburg viceroy in Naples and for a time seemed to be able to control the various populist factions in the city and the wider political situation. Ultimately, however, Masaniello was not able to maintain balance, in part due to his increasingly erratic behaviour. He was eventually murdered but Spanish control over the city remained shaky. A second revolt happened later in 1647 and it was not until the spring of 1648 that Spain regained full control over Naples.
Peace of Münster
The Dutch Republic and Spain had been at war since the Dutch Revolt of 1566. By 1648, the toll of the considerable war effort and the added dimensions of the Thirty Years’ War had reduced the effectiveness of Spanish control over the Netherlands. The Dutch Republic had also expanded its overseas trade as well, giving it the resources to finance its continued rebellion against Spain. Dutch importance in the European context had reached such a level that the Republic was invited to participate in the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia despite not being a formally recognised state. Representatives of the two sides met in the city of Münster where the majority of the negotiations took place. Ultimately, the Spanish were willing to recognise the Dutch Republic as a sovereign state, which led to similar acceptance across Europe.
Peace of Westphalia
The Thirty Years’ War was a protracted international conflict that started as a religious struggle but spread into a larger war involving all major European states. The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, ended that conflict. It also represented a major realignment of European boundaries by recognising the virtual sovereignty of the German states within the Holy Roman Empire, establishing the independence of the Dutch Republic, exempting the Swiss Confederation from imperial control, and seeing strategically important territories given to Sweden, France, and Brandenburg. Protestants, including Lutherans as well as Calvinists, made further gains in areas of political recognition and official tolerance. The Peace is also credited with establishing the modern European state system and diplomatic practices still in use today.
Uprising in Moscow Against Taxation
In a similar fashion to the revolt of 1639 in Normandy, salt caused a major insurrection in Moscow the following year. During the ‘Time of Troubles’ between the fall of the Rurik Dynasty in 1598 and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613, Russian finances had been decimated. The young tsar, Alexis I (the second Romanov ruler; 1629-1676; r. 1645-76) and his chief advisor Boris Morozov (1590-1661) attempted to reform taxation and thus grow state revenues and imposed a universal salt tax. Because non-nobles paid the majority of taxes, this led to considerable economic distress for the most vulnerable members of Russian society. The uprising was directed at making Alexis rescind the tax and force Morozov out of the Kremlin. Rioters targeted boyers, burning much of Moscow and killing several thousand people. Despite some mollifying efforts on the part of the tsar, the rebellion was put down and increased Alexis’ desire to press through with legal and military reforms that further entrenched state power in the conservative elements of Russian society. The outcomes of the rebellions also had a significant effect on strengthening the place of serfdom in Russia.
Peace of the Pyrenees
The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 ended the general conflict of the Thirty Years’ War, but France and Spain had fought on for another 11 years. By the end of the 1650s both states were war weary and after the major defeat suffered by the Spanish at the Battle of the Dunes in 1658 there was little stomach for further conflict. France, whose foreign policy was still guided by the ageing Cardinal Jules Mazarin (1602-61), was in a strong bargaining position. Territorial gains through the Treaty of Westphalia had allowed France to cut the land link between Austria and the Spanish Netherlands and French armies had proven a match for Spanish forces in battle. The Peace of the Pyrenees settled a number of dynastic and territorial issues between France and Spain, sealed with a royal marriage (between the French King, Louis XIV, and Philip IV of Spain’s daughter). Despite the territorial gains enjoyed by France, long-lasting peace was not achieved and the two states were at war again by 1668.
The Royal Society Founded in London
The longest surviving national scientific society (see the Académie des Sciences in Paris in this timeline), the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge started as an informal meeting for scientists and writers. It became an active group, promoting the study of a range of topics in the natural and physical sciences. Like other organisations with similar missions, the Royal Academy served as a quasi-governmental body that was able to help develop the sciences in England at a time of critical intellectual exploration and expansion. Royal charters of 1662 and 1663 subsequently turned it into an official institution under royal patronage. It remains active to this day.
Treaty of Copenhagen
Between 1655 and 1660, states in northern Europe and the Baltic area were embroiled in what was known as the Second Northern War. A coalition led by Sweden attempted to consolidate Swedish territorial gains in eastern Europe. Poland-Lithuania, Demark-Norway, the Habsburgs, and others resisted them. There were many reversals but ultimately Sweden found itself on the defensive. With the death of Swedish king Carl Gustav (also Charles X Gustav; 1622-60; r. 1654-60) in 1660 a major proponent of the conflict disappeared and the various warring states were able to agree peace terms through the treaties of Copenhagen and Oliva. The borders between the major Scandinavian states were established and remain largely unchanged to this day.
Académie des Sciences founded in Paris
Like the Royal Society in London, the Académie des Sciences was an Enlightenment project designed to promote exploration of scientific subjects. Officially founded by Louis XIV, the Académie was Europe’s leading learned society up until the French Revolution and facilitated considerable advancement in many fields of knowledge. It was much more closely aligned to the royal government than its English counterpart.
Académie des Sciences founded in Paris
Like the Royal Society in London, the Académie des Sciences was an Enlightenment project designed to promote exploration of scientific subjects. Officially founded by Louis XIV, the Académie was Europe’s leading learned society up until the French Revolution and facilitated considerable advancement in many fields of knowledge. It was much more closely aligned to the royal government than its English counterpart.
Great Fire of London
Starting as an accidental blaze in a baker’s shop on Sunday 2 September 1666, by the time the fire had burnt out three days later much of the medieval city of London had been destroyed. The fire, aside from highlighting the dangers of living in closely built cities constructed mainly of wood, also destroyed one of the most populous cities in Europe. It was a tense time politically in England, coming so soon after the restoration of the monarchy following the Commonwealth, but ultimately the fire did not lead to any major social upheavals. London was rebuilt, largely in a similar layout to the destroyed street plan. Stricter building regulations and oversight, however, meant that stone and brick became the materials of choice preventing futher conflagrations of a similar nature.
Edict of Nantes revoked by Louis XIV
King Henry IV of France (1553-1610; r. 1589-1610) had issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, thereby providing the Huguenots (Protestants living in France) with some degree of religious toleration and state protection. Never popular with the Catholic majority in France, growing pressure and lobbying convinced King Louis XIV (1638-1715; r. 1643-1715) to revoke the Edict in 1685. More than a simple removal of the Edict, Louis’ response also called for the destruction of Protestant churches in France and allowed for the forced conversion of non-Catholics. Whilst Louis may have been attempting to finally put to rest the sectarian divisions that had troubled France for decades, revoking the Edict of Nantes damaged Louis’ international prestige and deprived France of the skills and resources of an important minority as Hugenots took their money and skills and fled to neighbouring Protestant states.
Whitehall Palace in Westminster is Destroyed by Fire
Whitehall Palace, located in London on the north bank of the Thames, was a massive royal complex. By the time of its destruction by fire in 1698, it was the largest palace by room number in the world (with over 1500). Dating in parts from the thirteenth century, its maze of apartments and staterooms housed many royal residences and government offices. With its destruction and no successful efforts to rebuild a similar structure on the site, royal focus moved away from London and to other palaces, such as the complex at Kensington.
Lisbon Earthquake
A major earthquake, potentially one of the most powerful in recorded history, devastated the Portuguese capital on the morning of 1 November 1755. With a death toll of up to 100,000 people, the disaster was a significant blow to Portugal. Contemporary observers questioned whether the earthquake was an example of divine retribution meted out against a corrupt and sinful population. Coinciding with Enlightenment efforts to understand the natural world through science and observation, the Lisbon earthquake also prompted serious study of seismology.
Storming of the Bastille
Social and political discontent had been growing in France for a number of years prior to 1789. Fiscal mismanagement by the royal government and involvement in costly wars, such as the support of American colonists against Britain, had bankrupted France, leading to social issues. Tensions reached a head after the Estates-General demanded that king Louis XVI (1754-93; r. 1774-92) issue a written constitution and supporters of both the Estates-General and the King began to fight on the streets of Paris. Built in 1730 and used as a prison for political dissidents, the Bastille fortress had become an emblem of the French monarchy and its oppression and shortcomings. On 14 July 1789, an anti-government mob successfully stormed the fortress, killing its governor and freeing the handful of prisoners held. This was the first act of open rebellion and is considered the start of the French Revolution.
Opening of the Louvre Palace, Paris, as a Public Art Gallery
Following the overthrow of the French monarchy during the early stages of the French Revolution, attention turned towards how to utilize the many buildings and resources formerly owned by the monarchy. These included a vast collection of art, accumulated over many years. In thinking inspired by the Enlightenment, it was decided to turn the Louvre, a large and ornate palace in central Paris, into a gallery accessible to the public. It displayed elements of the former royal collection and grew into one of the most important state-owned art institutions in the world.
France Conquers Venice
Venice had been an independent, self-governing republic since 421 CE. At its peak during the Middle Ages, it had ruled over a commercial empire stretching from central Europe to Egypt and beyond. It had played a role in the decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire and advanced commercial interests and practices across the Mediterranean world. By the eighteenth century, however, strong competition from other European states and a resurgent Ottoman Empire had reduced Venice’s reach and influence. Also, Venice was structurally and financially unable to defend itself against the new military threats presented by the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon’s interest in northern Italy was primarily due to his desire to defeat Austrian forces and take important territories north of Venice. Although neutral, Venice’s position was too strategic to be ignored and both France and Austria were willing to divide Venetian territory in order to best further their own ambitions. Venice’s thousand-year position as an independent European state ended on 18 October 1797 with the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio. France gained possession of many of Venice’s colonies, especially those in the Greek islands whilst Austria retained the important port itself. The city came again under French control in 1805 but fell under Austrian rule between 1814 and 1866, when it was incorporated in the Kingdom of Italy.