Glossary Flashcards

A

Accessory bone

See Accessory ossicle.

Accessory ossicle

Small extra bone that occurs in various parts of the skeleton and is due to nonfusion of parts of a bone that is normally whole. Accessory ossicles commonly occur in skull sutures (e.g. Wormian bones).

Accumulated Degree Days

The average daily temperature derived from the sum of all days during which a body decomposed.

Acetabular fossa

Depressed circular roughened area in the center of the acetabulum.

Acetabulum

Circular depression on the os coxa for articulation with the femoral head; the hip socket.

Acromial end

Lateral end of the clavicle that articulates with the scapula.

Acromion

Large laterally projecting process on the superior end of the scapular spine.

Adipocere

Wax-like hydrated fatty acids.

Ala

Lateral protrusion of the first segment of the sternum that contains the articular surface for the os coxa.

Alveolar ridge

Ridges on the maxillae or mandible containing sockets for the teeth.

Anatomical position

The position of the body, either standing or lying, with the arms arranged straight along the side and the palms of the hands facing forward. In addition, the legs are extended straight, with the feet arranged as though they were flat on the ground (as in standing).

Anemia

A condition where there are low levels of iron in the hemoglobin molecules located on the red blood cells; in some cases, it can cause lytic lesions in bone.

Antemortem

Occurring before death; as used here, antemortem refers to any injuries or conditions that occurred when the person was living that are unaffected by death events.

Antemortem trauma

Refers to trauma that occurred before death such that there is partial or complete healing of the injury.

Anterior crest of the tibia

Ridge along the anterior surface of the tibial diaphysis.

Anterior inferior iliac spine

Anterior protrusion of bone below the anterior superior iliac spine.

Anterior sacral foramen

Openings on the anterior side of the sacrum between the lateral projections of the sacral segments.

Anterior superior iliac spine

Anterior-most protrusion of the ilium; it is superior to the anterior inferior iliac spine.

Anterior temporal

Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull on the anterior part of the temporal, forward to the lateral part of the frontal bone.

Anthroposcopy

The visual inspection of the human body, sometimes with the aid of x-rays (radiographs) or a hand-held lens, for the purpose of identifying traits of a qualitative (i.e., nominal or ordinal scale) nature.

Antiformalin solution

Uses chemicals that break down formalin; effective in dissolving the soft tissues of the human body.

Apex (auricualar surface)

The anterior-superior corner of the auricular surface; it is located where the arcuate line intersects the auricular surface of the posterior ilium.

Apex (patella)

Pointed inferior end of the patella opposite the base.

Appendicular Skeleton

As used here, the parts of the skeleton composed of the bones of the arms, legs, shoulder, and pelvis.

Apposition

Deposition of bony matrix onto the ends of the metaphyses of long bones, causing bone growth.

Architecture

As used here, refers to shape differences between nonhuman and human bones of approximately the same size (e.g., architectural difference between the femora of adult humans and elk).

Arcuate line

Raised area extending from the apex of the auricular surface of the os coxa to the posterior pubis.

Articular facet (for rib)

Facet or demifacet on the body of vertebrae for the head of the rib.

Articular facets (of the ribs)

Articular surface on the head of the ribs; ribs 2 through 9 are separated into two sections called demifacets.

Articular surface for the manubrium

Flat surface on the medial end of the clavicle for articulation to the sternum.

Articulate

Connect together; all bones (except the hyoid) articulate with at least one, and in many cases more than one, bone.

Ascending ramus

Vertical part of the mandible that articulates with the skull.

Asterion

The point where the posterior segment of the squamosal suture (technically the parietomastoid suture) ends at the lambdoid suture.

Atlas

First cervical vertebra.

Auricular surface

Raised L-shaped roughened area on the medial surface of the os coxa for articulation with the sacrum.

Autolysis

The term used to describe the degeneration of body tissues by the digestive fluids normally residing in the intestinal tract.

Axial Skeleton

As used here, the bones of the torso: sternum, ribs, and bones of the vertebral column.

Axis

Second cervical vertebra.

B

Base of the patella

Superior end of the patella opposite the apex.

Basion

The most inferior point on the anterior border of the foramen magnum.

Bayesian statistics

A branch of statistics that deals with probability based on data gathered from the world (as opposed to classical statistics).

Beveling

Angling of the surface of a hole caused by a projectile when it perforates bone; it causes the hole to be funnel shaped.

Billows

As used here, these are mounds of bone on the surface of the symphyseal face and auricular surface.

Bipartite patella

Condition of the patella (kneecap) where one of the centers of ossification does not fuse to the rest of the bone; it most usually manifests as a notch in the superior-lateral corner.

Bipedal

A form of movement involving two feet; humans are bipedal, in direct contrast to the four-footed movement of most animals.

Blast trauma

The effects of explosions on living tissue; as used here, the effect of explosions on the human body.

Blunt trauma

Refers to any injury caused by a low-velocity force that has a wide area of impact on bone.

Bone bruise or occult intraosseous fracture

Not often seen in the forensic context, they appear to be microfractures to trabecular bone due to compression forces.

Bow fracture or plastic deformation

An infraction caused by compression along the long axis of a bone (most commonly the forearm of children).

Breakaway spur

Small, pointed section of bone remaining on one of the cut surfaces of a bone, where the saw exited the bone.

Bregma

The point where the sagittal suture ends anteriorly at the coronal suture in the sagittal plane.

Bridge of the nose

The ridge of bone formed by the nasals; it extends from the root to the ends of these bones.

Buccal

Anatomical direction that refers to "near the cheek"; the buccal surface of teeth is the outer surface.

Bullet wipe

A small amount of bullet material (usually lead) that may be scraped off and embedded into the bony surface when a bullet travels through bone.

Bushman canine

An additional cusp on the lingual side of the crown of the maxillary canine; occurs most often in Blacks.

Butterfly fracture

Occur on long bones around the site of bullet impact on diaphysis; it appears as lozenge-shaped lines extending along the long axis of the bone.

Button osteoma

A nonmalignant neoplasm found on the skull that appears as a raised area; most often seen on the frontal.

C

Cadaver dogs

Specially trained dogs that are sensitive to the smell of decomposition.

Calcaneous

The heel of the foot, which articulates superiorly with the talus and anteriorly with many of the remaining bones of the ankle.

Calcination

The heating of a bone such that all materials are burned away except the calcium salts deposited during growth.

Caliber

Refers to the diameter of a bullet and/or barrel of a handgun or rifle. This size is usually given in hundredths of an inch; however, in recent years, metric calibers have become popular.

Callus

As used here, a raised area of (usually) disorganized and rough bone that covers the end of broken bones (if the break is sufficiently immobilized).

Cancellous

See trabecular bone.

Canid

Animals of the dog family; also called canines.

Canine

Doglike animals; can be used to refer to coyotes and wolves.

Canine fossa

Depressed area posterior to the root of the canine tooth on the maxilla.

Canine teeth

The pointed teeth next to the second incisor; sometimes called “eye teeth" or cuspids.

Capitulum

Knob on the lateral-inferior end of the humerus.

Carapals

Small bones of the wrist.

Carotid canal

Opening in the petrous portion of the temporal bone.

Carpals

The bones of the wrist; there are eight carpals in each hand.

Cartilaginous precursors

Cartilage that appears early in life in the place of bones; it provides a base for deposition of bony matrix.

Cause of death

Refers to the force that causes the death of an individual (e.g., blunt force trauma to the skull).

Centrum

Body of the vertebra, including those of the sacrum.

Certainty

As used here, refers to a statement that indicates certainty (e.g., the configuration of tooth amalgams indicates a positive identification).

Cervical vertebrae

Vertebrae that compose the neck.

Chain of custody

The process by which evidence is controlled, so that it is neither contaminated by matter not found at the scene nor lost after being removed from the recovery scene. Also called the chain of evidence.

Chemical methods

Variety of methods involving the determination of the chemical makeup of certain structures of the skeleton and associated matter (e.g., the ground beneath a decomposing body).

Chronological age

The amount of time in days, months, and years since birth.

Clavicle

The collarbone; it articulates medially with the sternum and laterally with the scapula. (Plural: clavicles)

Clavicle sternal end

The medial end of the clavicle.

Clavicular notch

Concave area on the manubrium for articulation with the clavicle.

Cleft

As used here, a notch in bone caused by vertically applied dynamic sharp force, usually the result of hacking actions with such implements as axes, meat cleavers, and machetes.

Coccyx

Structure composed of (usually) four undeveloped vertebrae that attaches to the inferior end of the sacrum.

Colles's fracture

A fracture of the distal radius, which results in posterior displacement of the wrist and hand.

Commingled

As used here, the intermixing of the bones of multiple persons.

Comminuted fracture

Bone break that results in the production of multiple fragments of bone.

Compact bone

See cortical bone.

Complete fractures

Break that results in the complete separation of segments of a bone.

Concentric fracturing

A series of concentric circles (or, more normally, parts of a circle), which may appear at various intervals away from the entry or exit wound of the skull.

Condyles

A rounded prominence for articulation with another bone.

Confidentiality

As used here, refers to professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves refraining from communicating case findings to others before they have been made public by the proper authorities.

Congenital pseudarthrosis

A fibrous joint between two sections of bone that fail to unite normally into a single structure (e.g., a pseudarthrosis between the medial and lateral sections of the clavicle).

Conoid tubercle

An inferiorly pointed projection on the inferior-distal surface of the clavicle.

Consistency in size

Refers to ensuring that bones within individuals are of similar proportions.

Consistent

As used here, refers to a statement that imparts an agreement with a possibility that is less confining than a numerical probability (e.g., consistent with homicide; consistent with age of mid- to late forties).

Contemporary

As used here, refers to the remains of persons who died within the last 50 years.

Coracoid process

Small laterally projecting process rising from the anterior-superior border of the glenoid fossa of the scapula.

Coronal suture

Suture that separates the frontal and parietals; it ends at the point where the frontal meets the greater wing of the sphenoid.

Coronoid fossa

Depression on the inferior posterior surface of the humerus, just superior to the trochlea and opposite the olecranon fossa.

Coronoid process of the mandible

Superior extension of the mandible, located anterior to the mandibular condyle.

Coronoid process of the ulna

Protrusion extending anteriorly from the inferior border of the trochlear notch of the ulna.

Corpus sterni

Main part of the sternum, rectangular in shape; also called the body.

Cortex

As used here, the outer layer of a bone, usually composed of cortical bone.

Cortical bone

The dense bone of the cortex; also known as compact bone.

Cortical bone involution

The loss of cortical bone; also known as osteoporosis.

Costal cartilage

Cartilage that connects the anterior ends of the ribs to the sternum.

Costal notches

Seven concave areas in the edge of the sternal body for articulation with the costal cartilage that attaches to the anterior ribs.

Cranial

Referring to the skull.

Crest

A narrow, prominent ridge of bone (e.g., nuchal crest formed from an unusually large nuchal line).

Crosscut saws

Saws designed to cut across the grain of the material being worked. To accomplish this, the edges of the teeth angle approximately 70° to the long axis of the saw.

Cross-examination

Part of a courtroom testimony usually performed by the opposing attorney in an attempt to discredit the testimony of the forensic anthropologist given during direct examination.

Crown

Part of the teeth that is visible above the gum; it is covered with white enamel and is peaked in some teeth into points called cusps.

Cryoturbation

The mixing of materials from various horizons of the soil down to the bedrock due to freezing and thawing.

Cusp 7

A small cusp located between the lingual cusps of the lower molar teeth; occurs most often in Blacks.

Cusps

The area on the occlusal surface of some teeth that are peaked into points.

D

Datum point

A permanent structure, such as a tree or building, at a recovery scene that is used as a reference point for all material evidence.

Decalcification

The loss of calcium and other minerals in bone that occurs, particularly with long removal from the body and/or burial for extended periods. This loss of both fluids and calcium salts causes bone to become light in weight with the passage of time.

Decedents

People who have died; also referred to as the "deceased."

Deciduous dentition

The early teeth that appear; also called the baby or milk teeth.

Decision matrix

A two-dimensional table used to help pick one choice out of two or more; see section in Chapter 1 for more details.

Deformation

As used here, refers to changes in bone shape, usually the result of repeated stress.

Deformative lesion

Pathological condition that involves abnormal contours or shapes of bones; rickets (insufficient vitamin D in children) is the most well known of this type of lesion.

Deltoid tuberosity

Raised oval structure on the lateral surface of the humerus, about midway between the superior and inferior ends (see Figure 15.27b for an unusually well-developed example of this feature).

Dens (Odontoid process)

Superior projection of the body of the axis that articulates with the posterior side of the anterior Atlas in midline.

Dentin

A bonelike material composing the majority of a tooth; the top part of the dentin is covered with enamel to form the tooth crown.

Depressed fracture

Break identifiable by segments of bone that point inwardly; seen most often in the skull due to compressive forces.

Dermestid beetles

Insects, and their larva, that will eat skin, internal organs, muscle, and even tendons and cartilage (if given enough time).

Diaphysis

The shaft of a bone. (Plural: diaphyses)

Diploe

Spongelike structure that occurs between the inner and outer cortical surfaces of the cranial vault; it is composed of trabecular bone.

Direct examination

Part of a courtroom testimony performed by the contacting attorney where the forensic anthropologist presents the evidence and opinions concerning the human remains.

Direction

As used here, refers to the direction from which the force contacts the bone; that is, does the force originate from the side, top, bottom, or some combination?

Disarticulation

The separation of articulated bones; this is done early in the forensic anthropological process, after the removal of bulk soft tissue.

Discriminant function analysis

A multivariate statistical method for calculating group assignment from measurements of a specimen.

Displacement

As used here, refers to the result of a traumatic event when surfaces that once were continuous no longer meet or meet at an unnatural angle.

Distal

Anatomical direction referring to the part of a bone that is farthest from where it articulates with the body; also, the surface of teeth farthest from the midline.

Distal fibular articular facet

Facet on the distal end of the fibula; forms the lateral part of the ankle.

Dorsal tubercle of the radius

Bump on the posterior surface of the distal end of the radius.

Dowager’s hump

A type of fatigue fracture of the vertebrae in older persons where the spinal column is angled so prominently forward as to appear to form a hump on the back.

Duplication

As used here, involves ensuring that no two bones of the same type and side are present in the skeleton.

Dynamic force

Force that is delivered powerfully and at high speed.

E

Ectocanthion

The point where the upper border meets the lateral border of the eye.

Ectocranium

Refers to the outside of the skull, especially the vault.

Electrical resistivity kit

Device that uses resistance meters to detect grave material so that it can be mapped before (instead of after) excavation.

Enamel

The white material covering the crowns of teeth; it is the hardest substance in the human body and contains the highest percentage of minerals.

Endocranium

Refers to the inside of the skull.

Endosteal

The interior surface of the medullary cavity tubular (e.g., limb) bones.

Epicanthic fold

A fold of skin over the superior and lateral parts of the eyes; appears most often in Asians.

Epiphyseal fracture

Type of break that can separate epiphyses from their respective metaphyses, and divide either of these structures into two or more pieces.

Epiphysis

Section of bone that caps the end of the limb bones. (Plural: epiphyses)

Epipteric bone

Accessory ossicle (sutural bone) that occurs in the area around pterion.

Establishing qualifications

Part of a courtroom testimony that involves a review of the forensic anthropologist’s education, background, publications in the field, membership in professional organizations, certifications, and experience in casework to establish qualifications for being an expert witness.

Ethmoid

Complex bone that forms the posterior-medial part of the eye orbits.

Everted lips

Outwardly turned lips; appear most often in Blacks.

Evidence

In forensic anthropology, evidence consists of the physical remains (skeletons) of individuals as well as associated material (e.g., clothing, shell casings).

Exit wound

As used here, a wound caused by a projectile or other penetrating object when it leaves a bone.

Extended burial

A burial where individuals are lying on their backs, with their arms by their sides (or crossed over their chest) and legs in line with the torso and extended their full length.

External acoustic meatus

Opening in the temporal bone for the ear; also called the external auditory meatus.

External occipital protuberance

Protrusion, sometimes forming a bony hook (called an inion hook), that extends inferiorly from the superior part of the nuchal area of the occipital in the sagittal plane (mainly seen in males).

Extremities of the pubic face

The upper and lower margins of the symphyseal surface.

F

Facet for the coccyx

Articular facet on the inferior end of the sacrum for articulation with the coccyx.

Facets

Small areas for the articulation of bones; seen on the vertebra and some limb bones (e.g., tibia, fibular). Teeth can also have facets where they meet each other (e.g., between adjacent teeth, on occlusal surface).

False start kerfs

Shallow kerfs (saw marks) caused by bouncing of the saw blade off the bone during a push stroke.

Fat pads

Thickened areas below the eyes composed of fatty tissue; appear most often in Asians.

Fatigue fractures

Fractures that occur in bones that are exposed to intermittent stress over a long period of time.

Felid

Animals from the cat family; also called felines.

Feline

Catlike animals; can be used when referring to lions, tigers, bobcats, pumas, etc.

Femoral head

The ball-like end of the femur for articulation with the hip socket (the acetabulum).

Femoral neck

Constricted area that connects the femoral head to the diaphysis (shaft).

Femur

Bone of the upper leg; the thigh bone. (Plural: femora)

Fibula

A thin bone that articulates with the tibia on the lateral side. (Plural: fibulae)

Fibular groove

Groove on the inferior end of the fibular that is posterior to the maleollar articular surface.

Fibular head

Superior end of the fibula that articulates with the tibia.

Fibular neck

Part of the fibula that connects the head to the diaphysis (shaft) of the fibula.

Fibular notch

Concave section on the inferior-lateral part of the distal end of the tibia for articulation with the inferior fibula.

Flexed burial

Also called semiflexed burial. A relaxed version of tightly flexed burial. In these positions, the elbows are not as close to the torso and the hands extend somewhat outward. Similarly, the knees extend outward close to right angles with the rest of the body, while the feet, although at the level of the buttocks, also extend somewhat away from the body.

Floating ribs

The eleventh and twelfth ribs of humans; so called because they do not articulate with the sternum (i.e., they appear to "float").

Focus (bone trauma)

Refers to the size of the surface on which the force impacts (i.e., wide or narrow).

Fontanelle

Gap that appears between skull bones in newborns (e.g., the frontal fontanelle is a gap in the area of bregma).

Foramen

Holes in bone to allow the passage of blood vessels and other structures.

Foramen magnum

Large oval opening in the occipital for passage of the spinal column into the cranial vault.

Foramen of Huschke

A foramen that occurs occasionally located on the floor of the ear canal; this opening is visible at birth, but usually closes by 5 years of age. However, in a small number of adults, it remains open into adulthood.

Foramen ovale

Small opening in the sphenoid.

Forensic Anthropology

According to the SWGANTH: " … the application of anthropological methods and theory—particularly those relating to the recovery and analysis of human remains—to resolve legal matters."

Forensic Archaeology

A subspecialty of archaeology where archaeological methods are used to locate and retrieve human skeletal material while following the rules of evidence established by law enforcement agencies.

Forensic Botany

The study of plants in relation to crime scenes.

Forensic Entomology

The study of insects, their life cycle and succession, on cadavers for the purpose of determining PMI.

Forensic Odontologists

Dentists who specialize in identifying persons from their dentition (i.e., teeth).

Forensic Taphonomy

As used here, the study of changes to the human body after death, especially in an uncontrolled environment (e.g., outside).

Fovea capitis

Depression on the lateral surface of the femoral head.

Fracture

As used here, a discontinuity (i.e., break) in a bone.

Fracture lines

Lines of discontinuity in bones; these usually originate near the point of impact, where they help dissipate the contacting force across the bone surface.

Frontal

The forehead bone that comprises the front part of the braincase and the upper part of the eye orbits.

Frontal eminence

Bulging paired (right and left side) areas on the frontal, located approximately one-third of the way between the eye orbits and parietals.

Frontal process

Superior projection of the maxilla that forms the side of the nasal aperture (piriform aperture).

Frontal sinus

A complex open area inside the frontal bone, that lies both above the upper border of the eye orbits and in the lower portion of the frontal in the midline.

Full-metal jacket

Coating of bullet, usually of copper, that covers the entire projectile.

Fume hood

A ventilation device used to help remove the strong odors that can be generated by decomposing bodies and the chemicals used to process them.

Furrows (animal scavenging)

Refers to grooves in bone caused by the teeth of a carnivore while chewing on the bone.

Furrows (pubic bone)

As used here, the grooves that lie between billows.

G

Gauge

Refers to the maximum weight of a lead ball that would fit down the barrel of a weapon (e.g., a 12-gauge shotgun would admit a lead ball weighing a twelfth of a pound).

General tendency

As used here, refers to statements about the majority of human remains manifesting certain characteristics (e.g., the majority of females have a wide subpubic angle and narrow ischiopubic ramus).

Generalized bone disease

Term used to describe bone disease of an unknown, or incompletely, known cause; used mainly as a label for small plaques of bone that occur on the limb bones, especially the tibia.

Geographic Information System

A system used to gather, store, and analyze geographic information; these systems are used in forensic anthropology to map evidence at a recovery scene and to aid in the determination of the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) among commingled remains. Called GIS for short.

GIS

See Geographic Information System.

Glabella

The most anterior point on the frontal on the midline, located between the browridges (when present).

Glenoid cavity

See Glenoid fossa.

Glenoid fossa

Oval shaped articular area on the superior-lateral corner of the scapula; also called the glenoid cavity.

Gnathion

The lowest point on the mandible on the midline.

Gonial angle

Posterior-inferior corner of the mandible.

Gonion

The point where the ascending ramus meets the horizontal ramus.

GPR

See Ground-penetrating radar.

Greater horns

Tube-shaped bones, extending posteriorly from the body of the hyoid.

Greater sciatic notch

Notch formed by the posterior protrusion of the ilium and the posterior side of the ischium.

Greater trochanter

Hook-like projection of bone on the superior end of the femur.

Greater tubercle

Knob of bone on the anterior-lateral surface of the humerus near the superior end.

Greater wing of the sphenoid

Section of the sphenoid between the temporal and the zygomatic bones, and bordered superiorly by the frontal.

Green bone response

The type of response that is seen when bone is injured while it is still covered with soft tissue and still contains the fluids present in life. Generally, green bone will bend and snap back into place more often than bone that is damaged postmortem.

Greenstick fracture

Break in bone where separation between the broken ends does not occur; most commonly seen in subadults.

Grid square

Square area, usually marked by string attached to wooden stakes, in a recovery scene within which human remains and other evidence are mapped.

Grooves

As used here, refers to grooves in a usually smooth surface, such as a bone or tooth.

Ground-penetrating radar

Device used to detect grave material; called GPR for short.

H

Hanging

A type of strangulation that occurs when a body is suspended by a flexible material (e.g., rope).

Haversian canal

A tube within a Haversian system for the passage of a blood vessel.

Haversian system

A roughly cylindrical structure within bone composed of concentric rings of lamellar bone around a central blood vessel (Haversian canal); also called an osteon.

Hematoma

Pool of clotted blood formed when veins and arteries are ruptured; usually due to trauma.

Hinge fracture

A type of infraction where part of the fractured area is still attached to its original bone.

Histology

The study of microscopic structures of living tissue. In forensic anthropology, this specialty involves the size and arrangement of Haversian systems, osteons, and other such structures.

Hollow-points

Bullets with indentations on their tips; hollow-point bullets are more common in handguns.

Honesty

As used here, refers to the professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves providing a complete and accurate assessment of forensic cases, without contributing information or opinions that cannot be substantiated by data.

Hoop fractures

Type of fracture lines, most common in high-velocity projectile wounds, that form concentric rings around the area of impact.

Humeral head

Semi-spherical structure at superior end of the humerus.

Humerus

Bone of the upper arm. (Plural: humeri)

Hyoid

A small U-shaped bone that is suspended in the neck, at the same level as the inferior edge of the mandible. In young individuals, it is composed of three segments, which fuse later in life.

Hyoid body

Central section of the hyoid.

Hypertrophy

Unusual enlargement of a structure; as used here, an area of attachment of a tendon that is enlarged and rugged.

I

Identification by exclusion

A method for identifying an individual in cases of multiple bodies; when the names all individuals are known (e.g., airplane passenger manifest) and all but one person is identified, the remains of the last person must be that of the unidentified person.

Iliac crest

Superior edge of the ilium.

Iliac fossa

Concave section of the iliac bone below the iliac crest.

Iliac pillar

Thickening of the ilium running from the acetabulum to the iliac tubercle.

Iliac tubercle

Thickened area of the iliac crest at the terminus of the iliac pillar.

Iliopubic eminence

Raised area where the pubis and ilium join.

Iliopubic ramus

Section of the pubis from the ilium to the symphyseal surface.

Ilium

Upper flared bone of the os coxa.

Impeach

Involves finding inconsistencies in evidence offered, or proving that the methods used are inadequate, in order to discredit the witness’ testimony.

Incisions

As used here, cuts in bone that are longer than they are wide.

Incisive foramen

Circular opening between the right and left maxillae in the anterior palate.

Incisive suture

The suture that separates the part of the palate containing the upper incisors from the rest of the maxilla.

Incisors

The flat, chisel-like teeth in the front of the mouth that are easily visible when persons are smiling or talking.

Inconsistent

As used here, refers to a statement that imparts disagreement with a possibility (e.g., the remains are inconsistent with a person over 6 feet tall).

Indexes

A method for standardizing skeletal measurements for two dimensions, formed by dividing one measurement by another and multiplying by 100.

Individualization

As used here, refers to any bony feature that can add to the profile of a decedent.

Inferior

Point or region below another point or region.

Inferior angle of the scapula

Inferior tip of the scapula.

Inferior articular facet

Area on the vertebra for articulation with the inferior adjacent vertebra.

Inferior costal demifacet

Half facets on thoracic vertebrae 1 through 8, located on the inferior body for articulation with head of ribs.

Infraction

A fracture that does not result in a discontinuity (i.e., break) in a bone; an incomplete fracture.

Infraspinous fossa

The plane formed by the body of the scapula below the spine on the anterior surface. Also called the ventral infraspinous plane.

Inion hook

An unusually enlarged external occipital protuberance that takes the form of a bony “hook" protruding inferiorly from the occipital.

Intercept

The point where a line passes through an axis on a graph; in a regression line, the intercept is the point where the line meets the Y-axis when the X value is zero.

Intercondylar eminence

Raised area with two spikes projecting superiorly between the medial and lateral condyles of the tibia.

Intercondylar fossa

Depression on the posterior surface of the distal end of the femur that separates the medial and lateral condyles.

Intercostal cartilage

See Costal cartilage.

Intertrochanteric crest

Ridge connecting the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur.

Intertubercular groove

Groove between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus.

Interval

Level of measurement composed of units on a fixed scaled and no natural zero point.

Inventory

As used here, a complete list of the osteological and odontological remains, including a judgment as to the number of individuals present.

Inward beveling

Inward beveling is seen in bone wounds at the site of a bullet’s entry into a bone. The outer hole on the bone’s surface is smaller than the inner hole, which can be quite large.

Irregular bullet wounds

Those wounds that do not show any general pattern (i.e., are not circular as in a projectile entry wound).

Ischial spine

Posterior protrusion of bone, superior to the ischial tuberosity.

Ischial tuberosity

Thickened area of the posterior-inferior corner of the ischium.

Ischiopubic ramus

Section of bone composed of the inferior pubis and anterior ischium.

Ischium

The bone of the lower (inferior) and back (posterior) part of the hip bone (os coxae).

Ischium–pubic index

Index calculated by dividing the length of the pubis by the length of the ischium (as measured from the acetabulum) and multiplying by 100; developed as a way of quantifying the longer, more stretched character of the pubic bone in females when compared to males.

J

Jacket

As used here, refers to a thin metal coating on a bullet.

Joint surface concurrence

As used here, the method for ensuring that the articular surfaces of the bones that join together match in size.

Jugular notch

Concave area on the superior edge of the manubrium.

K

Kerf

Groove in a material caused by the cutting action of a saw.

Keyhole bullet wounds

Holes usually caused by projectiles that have the appearance of old-fashioned keyholes; that is, they are circular on one end and triangular on the other.

Kyphosis

Condition in which the vertebral column curves forward to a degree greater than normal.

L

Labial

Toward the lips; as used here, the outer surface of the teeth that are near the lips rather than the cheeks.

Lacrimal

Paired bones of the anterior medial eye orbits. (Plural: lacrimals)

Lambda

The point where the sagittal and lambdoid suture meet; this point on the rear of the skull is in the midline.

Lambdoid suture

The lambdoid suture separates the parietals and occipital bone; it curves across the back of the skull, ending where the occipital and parietals meet the temporals.

Lamellar

A strong, well-organized bone that is laid down in thin layers that run parallel to the long axis of a bone.

Lamina

Long segments of the vertebral arch between the pedicle and spinous process.

Landmarks

As used here, landmarks are points on the skull, used in description or in measurement.

Lateral

Away from the midline; the radius is the lateral bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position.

Lateral border of the scapula

Lateral edge of the scapular body.

Lateral articular facet of the patella

Articular area on the posterior-lateral side of the patella.

Lateral condyle of the femur

Large knob on the lateral surface of the distal end.

Lateral condyle of the tibia

Lateral flare of bone on the superior end of the tibia.

Lateral epicondyle of the femur

Convex area on the lateral side of the lateral condyle of the femur.

Lateral epicondyle of the humerus

Knob on lateral side of inferior end of the humerus.

Lateral malleolus

Inferior part of the fibula.

Lateral supracondylar line

Line connecting the linea aspera to the lateral condyle of the femur.

LeFort 1

Fracture resulting in the separation of the alveolar area of the maxilla from the rest of the bone.

LeFort 2

Fracture resulting in the separation of the midface (maxillae and nasals) from the rest of the skull.

LeFort 3

Fracture resulting in the separation face from the cranial vault.

LeFort fractures

Fractures resulting in the separation of part or all of the face from the rest of the skull.

Lesser sciatic notch

Indented area below the ischial spine of the ischium.

Lesser trochanter

Posteriorly and laterally projecting knob of bone on the posterior surface near the superior end of the femur.

Lesser tubercle

Smaller knob on the anterior part of the superior end of the humerus.

Ligature

Occurs when cordage of some kind is placed around the neck, tightened, and held in place by a force.

Linea aspera

Roughened ridge on the posterior surface extending along the middle of the diaphysis (shaft) of the femur.

Lingual

Toward the tongue; as used here, refers to the inner surface of teeth.

Lipping

As used here, refers to curling of the ventral and dorsal margins of the symphyseal face until they form distinct lips.

Lumbar vertebrae

The (usually) five bottom (inferior) bones of the spinal column, above the sacrum.

Lunate surface

Crescent-shaped articular surface within the acetabulum.

Lytic lesions

Pathological conditions that involve an abnormal loss of bone, that is, erosion and/or destruction of cortical or trabecular bone.

M

Maceration

The softening of tissues so that they can be removed from the bone.

Macroporosity

As used here, refers to the large perforations on the auricular surface that occur as a person ages.

Magnetometer

Instrument to measure the magnetic properties of a material; forensic anthropologists can use these to detect buried metal.

Malar eminences

Thickened area of the zygomatic bone, situated near where zygomatic bone meets the maxilla.

Malleolar articular surface

Triangular area on the distal end of the ulna for articulation with the inferior tibia.

Mammillary process

Knob of bone projecting posteriorly from the superior articular process of the lumbar vertebrae.

Mandible

Lower jaw bone.

Mandibular body

The main, horizontal part of the mandible that holds the teeth; also called the horizontal ramus.

Mandibular condyle

Expanded end of the ascending ramus of the mandible; for articulation with the condylar fossa of the temporal.

Mandibular fossa

Depression on the temporal for attachment of the mandibular condyles.

Manner of death

Refers to the way a person died; there are five manners used in forensics: homicide, suicide, accident, natural, and unknown.

Manual strangulation

Occurs when the throat is squeezed by human hands until death occurs.

Manubrium

Superior part of the sternum, roughly triangular in shape.

Markers of occupational stress

Bone conditions that appear to be caused by atypical body movements. These include facets, hypertrophies, lytic lesions, and other such defects.

Mastication

The act of chewing.

Mastoid process

Knob of bone behind the ear opening that extends inferiorly from the temporal bone.

Maturity

As used here, a means for distinguishing animals whose mature bones are approximately the same size as subadult humans; subadult human bones will have unfused or missing epiphyses, while those of nonhumans will display fused epiphyses.

Maxilla

Complex paired bones of the upper jaw (right and left) that articulate with the frontal, zygomatics, and palatines; they also form the hard palate (i.e., roof the mouth), the inferior part of the eye orbits, and the lateral side of the nasal aperture (piriform aperture). (Plural: maxillae)

Maxillary sinuses

Open areas inside the body of the maxilla.

Maxillofrontale

The point at which the fronto-maxillary suture meets the anterior lacrimal crest.

Medial

Toward the midline; the inside bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position (the ulna) is called the medial bone because it is closest to the middle of the body.

Medial articular facet of the patella

Articular area on the posterior-medial side of the patella.

Medial border of the scapula

Medial edge of the scapular body.

Medial condyle of the femur

Large knob on the medial surface of the distal end of the femur.

Medial condyle of the tibia

Medial flare of bone on the superior end of the tibia.

Medial epicondyle of the femur

Convex area on medial side of the medial condyle of the femur.

Medial epicondyle of the humerus

Large knob extending medially from the inferior-lateral surface of the humerus.

Medial malleolus

Projection of bone that extends inferiorly from the medial surface of the distal end of the tibia.

Medial supracondylar line

Line connecting the linea aspera to the medial condyle of the femur.

Median palatine suture

Suture that separates the right from the left maxillary and palatine bones.

Medicolegal community

Professionals who deal with matters of human deaths of unknown causes; these include medical examiners, coroners, forensic pathologists, forensic anthropologists, and forensic odontologists.

Medullary cavity

The tube that runs through the center of all long bones; in life, it is filled with fatty tissues.

Mental eminence (protuberance)

Anterior protrusion of the mandible that forms the chin.

Mesial

Closest to the midline; the mesial surface refers to those parts of the teeth closest to the midline.

Metacarpals

Five bones of the palm.

Metaphysis

Flared structure at each end of the diaphysis where the epiphysis attaches to the bone. (Plural: metaphyses)

Metapodials

The metacarpals and metatarsals of ungulates, such as deer, sheep, cow, and elk.

Metatarsals

Five bones of the foot, not including the ankle or toes.

Metopic suture

Suture between the right and left halves of the frontal bone of the skull; this suture is visible at birth, but is usually closed and obliterated by adulthood.

Metopism

Condition where metopic suture is visible in adulthood.

Metric methods

As used here, methods that attempt to quantify, using ratio level scales, many of the anthroposcopic characteristics helpful in the identification of aspects of the skeleton.

Microporosity

As used here, refers to the small perforations on the auricular surface that occur in young persons.

Midfrontal

Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the midline on the frontal bone.

Midoccipital

Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the midline on the occipital bone.

Mineralization

Deposition of various salts into skeletal elements by ground water.

Minimal (suture closure)

A condition of suture closure where there is anywhere from one bony bridge between the two sides to as much as 50% fusion.

Minimum Number of Individuals

The minimum number of individuals represented by a collection of bone; called MNI for short.

Modeling

As used here, large-scale modifications to bone shape that occur during growth.

Molars

The square-to-rectangular chewing teeth found at the rear of the mouth.

Mummification

As used here, rapid dehydration of the skin and internal organs.

N

Narrow focus

As used here, force applied to a single point or a thin line (e.g., ice picks, knives, axes, meat cleavers, machetes, or swords).

Nasal

Pair of bones that forms the bridge of the nose. (Plural: Nasals)

Nasal concha

Turbinal bone in the nasal aperture; there are three on each side of the aperture: superior, middle, and inferior. (Plural: Nasal conchae)

Nasion

The point where the internasal suture meets the nasofrontal suture in the midsagittal plane.

Nasofrontal processes

Thickened area (buttress) of the maxilla, running parallel to the zygomaxillary suture.

Neck of the tooth

Section of a tooth where the crown meets the root(s).

Necrosis

Localized bone death.

Neural arch

See Vertebral arch.

Nominal

Refers to a scale of measurement where data is classified into discrete (usually) non-overlapping categories.

Noncontemporary

As used here, refers to the remains of persons who died more than 50 years ago.

Nuchal area

Roughened area on the posterior-inferior part of the occipital.

Nuchal crest

An unusually enlarged superior nuchal line that forms a bony ridge arching horizontally across the occipital.

Nutrient foramen

Opening (foramen) in a bone for the passage of the nutrient artery into the medullary canal.

O

Obelion

Landmark located in the midsagittal plane where a line drawn between the right and left parietal foramina bisects the sagittal suture.

Oblique fracture

Fracture passes through the shaft of the bone at an angle approximating 45°.

Obliteration (suture closure)

As used here, the complete fusion between cranial bones with no discernible gap; the suture that separated the bones either appears as a line drawn on the bones or is no longer visible.

Obturator foramen

The open area formed the encircling effect of the ilium, ischium, and pubis.

Occipital

Bone that forms the rear and base of the skull vault (braincase).

Occipital condyles

Oval knobs on the inferior occipital, adjacent to the anterior foramen magnum, for articulation of the skull to the Atlas.

Occlusal

The chewing surface of teeth.

Odontology

The study of dentition; this entails the recognition of the deciduous (baby) and permanent teeth as well as their placement in the mouth, their major features, and the variations seen in persons of different ancestry.

Olecranon

Hook-like end of the ulna that articulates with the trochlea proximally.

Olecranon fossa

Depression on the inferior-anterior surface of the humerus, just superior to the trochlea and opposite the coronoid fossa.

Open (suture closure)

As used here, refers to sutures where there is no evidence of closure.

Opinion

As used here, refers to any interpretations about human remains developed from the methods used by forensic anthropologists.

Opisthocranion

The farthest point on the back of the skull from the glabella in the sagittal plane.

Orale

Midpoint of a line drawn tangent to the lingual borders of the central incisors.

Ordinal

Scale of measurement that involves discrete non-overlapping categories that can be ordered (e.g., small, medium, or large).

Os coxa

Hip bone. (Plural: os coxae)

Os japonium

An accessory ossicle that occurs on the inferior border of the zygomatic bone; it is seen most frequently among Japanese people. Also called os japonicum.

Os triangulare

A used here, a condition of the ulna formed by nonfusion of the styloid process; also called persistent ulna styloid ossicle.

Os trigonum

The nonfusion of the posterior process of the talus.

Ossific nodules

As used here, “blobs" of bone that can appear on the symphyseal surface.

Ossify

To turn into bone or bony tissue.

Osteogenic

Refers to the bone-forming activity of cells.

Osteology

The study of the bones of the skeleton, including their names, placement, articulations with other bones, visible features, and so forth.

Osteomalacia

Softening of bone in adults usually due to a vitamin D deficiency.

Osteometry

The measurement of human bone on a quantitative scale (usually millimeters and centimeters) using calipers or an osteometric board.

Osteon

Bone cell found throughout the lamellar bone of the cortex; see Haversian system.

Osteophyte

Outgrowth of bone linked to osteoarthritis as well as to general deterioration due to age.

Osteophytosis

A condition in which small spurs or ridges of bone project from an area that is normally smooth or flat.

Outward beveling

Outward beveling is seen in bone wounds at the site of a bullet’s exit from a bone. The outer hole on the bone’s surface is larger than the inner hole.

Oval bullet wounds

Bullet wounds with an elliptical outline that occur when either the angle of bullet trajectory is not perpendicular to the bone’s surface or when the bullet is tumbling when it strikes the bone.

P

Palate

The roof of the mouth formed by the maxillae and palatines.

Palatine

Bone forming the posterior part of the palate; there is a right and a left palatine. (Plural: palatines)

Parietal

Middle bone of the skull vault; there is a right and left parietal. (Plural: parietals)

Parietal foramen

Opening in the parietal near the sagittal suture.

Parry fracture

Fracture of the ulna that (usually) is caused when persons hold their arms up, bent at the elbow, to ward off a blow.

Patella

Kneecap. (Plural: patellae)

Patellar surface

The superior part of the anterior articular surface on the distal end of the femur.

Pathological conditions

Non-normal, unhealthy conditions.

Pathological fractures

Breaks that occur in bones that are weakened by disease.

Patterned injuries

Type of trauma where the imprint of the impacting instrument or surface is clearly visible on the affected tissue.

Pedicle

Short segment of vertebral arch that connects the lamina of the vertebral arch to the vertebral body.

Pellets

Solid balls made of lead and, in some cases, steel usually expelled from a shotgun.

Pelvic inlet

The area enclosed by the os coxae and sacrum when viewed superiorly; it is heart shaped in males, but more oval in females.

Penetrating (entry) wound

As used here, wound caused by a bullet that strikes with enough energy to break through a bone.

Perimortem

At, or near, the time of death.

Perimortem trauma

Refers to injuries that occurred at or around the time of death.

Periosteal surface

The exterior of surface of bone.

Periosteum

Tissue that covers bone, and forms bone during growth; also creates new bone that bridges the gap between broken segments after fracture.

Permanent dentition

Dentition that replaces the deciduous teeth; these are the teeth of adults.

Petrous portion of the temporals

Medially and anteriorly projecting part of the temporal bone.

Phalanges (of the feet)

The toe bones; each foot has 14 phalanges.

Phalanges (of the hand)

Finger bones; there are 14 phalanges in each hand.

Physiological age

As used here, the age estimated from bone based on its stage of development or deterioration; correlated with, but not the same as, chronological age.

Pits (carnivore activity)

As used here, punctures caused by carnivore activity that do not penetrate the cortical surface of bone.

Plateau

As used here, the posterior extension of the symphyseal face that occurs with aging.

PMI

See Postmortem interval.

Popliteal line

Roughened line running inferior and medially along the superior posterior surface of the tibia.

Popliteal surface

Triangular area between the medial and lateral supracondylar lines of the femur.

Porosity

As used here, holes in bone caused by aging, especially on the auricular surface of the ilium.

Porotic hyperostosis

A pathological condition, most often found on the occipital, that is composed of small to large openings (pores).

Positive identification

As used here, association of human remains with one person to the exclusion of all others; also called personal identification.

Possible

As used here, refers to any opinion on a characteristic or event that is possible; this has a higher certainty than speculation, but still represents an unlikely situation.

Postcranium

Referring to all the bones below the skull.

Posterior inferior iliac spine

Posterior protrusion of the ilium below the posterior superior iliac spine.

Posterior process (talus)

A process on the posterior surface of the talus.

Posterior superior iliac spine

Posterior protrusion of the ilium above the posterior inferior iliac spine.

Posterior temporal

Refers to a buttress (thickening) of the skull in the posterior part of the temporal bone, including the mastoid process.

Postmortem damage

As used here, refers to damage to bone that occurs after death.

Postmortem injuries

See Postmortem damage.

Postmortem interval

The amount of time that has elapsed since the death of the decedent; in forensic anthropology, this is usually the time between when persons were last seen alive and when their remains are found.

Preauricular sulcus

Groove running along the inferior edge of the ilium below the auricular surface.

Premaxilla

Part of the maxilla containing the upper incisors.

Premolars

Teeth located between the canines and the molars; called bicuspids by some dentists.

Pretrial meeting

Refers to a meeting between a forensic anthropologist and the contacting attorney, either prosecutor or defense attorney, to discuss the anthropologist’s courtroom testimony.

Primary centers

As used here, the main centers within cartilaginous precursors where ossification begins.

Primary osteons

The first bone cells that appear during growth; over time they die and become fully or partially replaced by secondary osteons.

Primary vascular canals

The canals interspersed within the layers of the primary lamellar bone of the cortex that carry minerals and nutrients to and from the osseous tissues.

Probable

As used here, refers to opinions with the highest level of certainty that can be applied to any data determined from the human skeleton.

Probable identification

Identification of an individual where there is so great a match between antemortem and postmortem data that there is a high probability that human remains are those of one person.

Projectile trauma

Trauma caused by projectiles (e.g., bullets) that have enough energy to cause a wound to appear.

Proliferative lesions

Pathological conditions that take the form of excess bone being deposited at various locations throughout the skeleton.

Pronasale

The tip of the nose.

Prosthion

The most anterior point on the intermaxillary suture in the midsagittal plane.

Proximal

Area closest to the articulation point of the body (e.g., the proximal end of the humerus is the shoulder end).

Pterion

The region where the greater wing of the sphenoid meets the frontal, parietal, and temporal.

Pterygoid plates (medial and lateral)

Thin wing-like structures that project inferiorly from the body of the sphenoid.

Pubic tubercle

Knob on superior surface of the pubic bone, close to the symphyseal surface.

Pubis

The ventral and anterior bone of the os coxa.

Puncture (sharp force trauma)

As used here, injury to bone caused by the vertical impact of a pointed instrument.

Punctures (carnivore activity)

Areas of bone that have collapsed under the force of carnivore tooth pressure.

Putrefaction

The process by which a body is broken down by the action of the microorganisms normally residing within the body.

Q

Quadrants (mouth)

As used here, the four parts of the mouth: upper left and right, and lower left and right.

Quadrupedal

Animals that have a four-footed stance.

R

Radial head

The disk-shaped proximal end of the radius that articulates with the radial notch on the ulna.

Radial neck

The constricted area below the head of the radius that connects it to the diaphysis.

Radial notch

Small oval notch on the lateral side of the trochlear notch of the ulna for articulation of the head of the radius.

Radial styloid process

Inferior protrusion of bone on the lateral surface of the radius.

Radial tuberosity

The oval-shaped bump on the anterior-medial side near the proximal end of the radius for attachment of the biceps muscle.

Radiating fracture lines

Fracture lines that radiate, in a starburst pattern, from a site of impact.

Radius

Lateral bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position. (Plural: radii)

Radius interosseous border

Sharp medial side of the radius.

Rampart

As used here, the mound of bone that forms on the ventral edge of the symphyseal face.

Range chart

A method that involves the making of a visual representation of multiple ranges of estimates (e.g., age ranges) so that a central tendency can be determined.

Ratio

A scale of measurement that has a zero point and is comprised of units of measurement that are of fixed width.

Redirect examination

Part of a courtroom testimony where the consulting attorney clarifies issues brought up during cross-examination to avoid unnecessary loss of credibility.

Regression

A statistical method for showing the relationship between variables; uses the values of one or more variables (e.g., limb bone lengths) to estimate another (e.g., stature).

Remodeling

As used here, the process whereby bone shape and structure changes after it is fully formed.

Residual soft tissue removal

Removal of remnants of soft tissue left after most has been cut away by scalpels and tissue scissors.

Respect

As used here, refers to the professional ethic of forensic workers (including anthropologists) that involves treating the remains of a decedents and their families with sensitivity and respect.

Retroauricular area

The section of the ilium that is posterior to the auricular surface; this oddly shaped region varies in contour from flat to fairly wavy.

Reverse beveling

As used here, beveling in the opposite direction expected for an entrance or exit wound caused by a projectile (e.g., outward beveling at an entrance wound).

Rib articular facet

Articular facet or demifacet on the head of the ribs for articulation with the vertebral body.

Rib head

Posterior part of the rib that articulates with the vertebrae.

Rib neck

Area that joins the head to the shaft (body) of the rib.

Rib shaft

The main part of the rib from the tubercle to the anterior end; also called the body of the rib.

Rib sternal end

Anterior end of the rib that articulates with the sternum by way of the costal cartilage.

Rib tubercle

Knob of bone that has a facet for articulation with the transverse process of the vertebra.

Ribs

Curved bones that form the thorax (chest). (Singular: rib)

Rickets

The softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency.

Ridges

As used here, ridges of bone that occur on the symphyseal face in early adulthood.

Rifling

Spiral grooves running from one end to another that are cut into the internal surface of gun barrels; used to impart a spin so that the bullet will travel straighter for a longer period of time.

Rim

As used here, refers to the raised circle of bone around the outer edge of the symphyseal surface.

Rim contour

As used here, refers to the contour of the rim of the rib, which starts out straight and becomes wavy with age, eventually having “fingers" of bone.

Ring fracture

A special type of break that occurs on the base of the skull resulting in separation of the area around the foramen magnum.

Rip saws

Saws designed to cut along the grain of a material.

Root of the nose

The area of the nose where the nasals meet the frontal (i.e., area at nasion).

Root of the tooth

The part of the tooth that is embedded in the jaw, composed of a bonelike material called dentin.

Round bullet wounds

As used here, bullet holes in bone that are circular in shape; these are most likely to occur when both the angle of trajectory and the angle of bullet axis are perpendicular to the bone’s surface.

S

Sacrum

Central bone of the pelvis composed of fused vertebrae; serves to attach the vertebral column to the pelvis.

Sagittal suture

Suture that separates the right and left parietal bones; it starts at the coronal suture and ends where the parietals meet the occipital.

Scalloping

The distinctive configuration of the upper border of the frontal sinuses believed to be unique to each individual person.

Scapula

Triangular bone that forms the shoulder blade. (Plural: scapulae)

Scapular neck

Area connecting the glenoid fossa to the scapular body.

Scapular spine

Ridge running from the center of the medial boarder to the superior-lateral border on the posterior surface of the scapula.

Schmorl’s nodes

Cavitations on the superior and inferior surfaces of the vertebral bodies.

Scoliosis

Pathological condition in which the vertebral column exhibits lateral curvature(s).

Scoring (animal activity)

As used here, scratches across the cortical surface of bones, usually appearing as a group of parallel lines, caused by the teeth of various animals.

Secondary centers

Areas in cartilaginous precursors where ossification occurs that eventually unite with the primary centers to form a complete bone.

Secondary osteons

Bone cells that occur later in a bone's life, and either fully or partially replace primary osteons.

Sectioned bone cuts

Deep kerfs in bone that indicate that a number of strokes have been executed within the same groove.

Sectioning point

Value on a scale, usually derived during discriminant function analysis, that divides one group from another, such as the sectioning point between males and females.

Secular changes

As used here, the changes in body proportions that have occurred over the last 100 or so years.

Segmental fracture

A type of fracture resulting in three segments of bone: a medial and a lateral piece, which are separated by a section between their two ends.

Semiflexed burial

See flexed burial.

Semijacket of bullet

Bullet coating, usually of copper, that covers only part of the projectile.

Septal aperture

Hole through the olecranon fossa of the humerus.

Septum

As used here, wall that divides the right and left sides of the frontal sinus.

Sharp trauma

Trauma caused by an implement with a point or narrow edge.

Shovel-shaped incisor

Incisor with raised edges on their lingual side.

Significant (suture closure)

As used here, condition of suture closure where there is more than 50% fusion between the bones but there is still some separation.

Sill (nose)

As used here, a narrow wall of bone between the floor of the nose and the anterior maxilla.

Simometer

A special kind of sliding caliper that has a center part for measuring the height of an anatomical feature as well as its width.

Simple fracture

A type of fracture resulting in a bone broken into two segments.

Sinuses

Pockets of air within sections of some of the cranial bones. The frontal, ethmoid, temporals, sphenoid, and maxillae all exhibit such pockets.

Site survey

Type of ground search where a group of searchers walk side by side in a line while scanning the ground for any indication of previous human incursion (e.g., human remains).

Skeletal anomalies

Skeletal conditions that deviate from the normal or standard for the particular bone.

Slope

As used here, the number in a regression equation that is multiplied by the independent variable.

Soil compaction

As used here, any of three telltale signs indicating a grave: cracks along the perimeter of the burial pit, a primary depression formed by the decomposition of the body, and a secondary (and smaller) depression formed in the middle of the primary depression due to the collapse of the abdominal cavity.

Speculation

As used here, refers to any statement about human remains that is based on few, if any, data.

Speed (bone trauma)

Refers to the speed at which a force is applied to a bone; there are two types: dynamic and static.

Sphenoid

Complex bone between the cranial vault and facial bones that also forms the posterior-lateral part of the eye orbits.

Spina bifida

A condition in which the sacrum exhibits separation between the right and left halves of what would be the neural arch in this structure.

Spine (nose)

As used here, a projection of bone emanating from both the floor of the nasal aperture and the anterior part of the maxillae.

Spinous process

Posterior projection of the vertebral arch in midline.

Spiral fracture

Refers to a fracture that is caused by excessive torsional force on a bone.

Spondylolysis

Vertebral anomaly in which there is separation of the vertebral (neural) arch from the body of a vertebra.

Squama

The flared part of a bone; seen in the temporal or occipital bones.

Squamous suture

Suture that separates the squamous portion of the temporal from the parietal.

Standard error

A measure of variability for a statistic, such as mean or regression coefficient; see any probability and statistics textbook for more information.

Static force

As used here, refers to stress to a bone that is applied slowly; typically, this force starts low and builds to the point where the bone breaks. This usually results only in displacement of bones, with few, if any, fracture lines. In the forensic context, the most common injury caused by static force is breaking of the hyoid bone during manual strangulation.

Stature

The living height of an individual.

Sternum

The breastbone that serves as an anchor for the anterior ends of the ribs.

Stress fractures

Bone breaks caused by overuse.

Striae

Lines or streaks that run parallel to each other.

Striations

See striae.

Stryker saw

A vibrating saw in which the blade reciprocates rapidly with a small amplitude.

Styloid process (temporal)

Inferior projection of bone on the temporal posterior to the mandibular fossa.

Styloid process (Ulna)

Inferior projection of bone on the distal end of the ulna.

Subnasal

The point on the lower margin of the anterior nasal aperture in the midline.

Subpubic angle

Angle formed between the right and left ischiopubic rami.

Superciliary arches

Thickened areas arching over each eye orbit that are more prominent in males than females; more commonly called browridges or supraorbital tori.

Superficial false start scratches

The scratches caused when the blade of a saw is drawn across a bone (usually on the pull stroke) without much pressure.

Superior

Toward the head, also referred to as cranial.

Superior angle of the scapula

Superior medial corner of the scapula.

Superior articular facet

Articular area of the vertebrae for articulation with the superior adjacent vertebra or, on the atlas, the skull.

Superior costal demifacet

Half facet on thoracic vertebrae 2 through 9 located on the superior body near the pedicle; used for articulation with the head of ribs.

Superior fibular articular facet

Flat area for articulation of the superior end of the fibula on the inferior part of the lateral condyle of the tibia, facing posterior-laterally.

Supernumerary teeth

Extra teeth that appear as small, peglike structures usually located in the area between the normal teeth.

Supramastoid crest

Ridge extending from the posterior of the zygomatic arch over the external acoustic meatus of the temporal.

Supraspinous fossa

Depressed area superior to the scapular spine.

Surface bone

As used here, refers to the surface of the rib end, which is smooth in youth and becomes granular and porous with age.

Surface contour

As used here, refers to the surface of the rib end, which is wavy (billowy) in youth, becomes flat, and eventually indented later in life.

Surgical neck

Constricted segment of the humerus, inferior to the head that connects it to the shaft (diaphysis).

Sutures

Joint between two bones of the skull.

Symphyseal surface

Medial face of the pubic bone; it articulates with its opposite to form the pubic symphysis.

T

Talus

The top tarsal bone, which has a superior and medial articular facet for the tibia and lateral malleolus of the fibula.

Tarsals

The bones of the ankle; each side (right or left) has seven tarsals.

Temporal

Side bones of the lower part of the skull vault that contain the ear opening and the mastoid process, among other features. (Plural: temporals)

Temporal line

Ridge of bone originating from the superior-lateral corner of the eye orbit and arcing posteriorly along the frontal.

Temporal squama

Semi-circular wing-like part of the temporal bone.

Temporomandibular joint

Joint formed between the lower jaw and the temporals; called TMJ for short.

Texture

As used here, refers to the texture of the auricular surface, which starts out granular in youth but becomes more coarse with age.

Thoracic vertebrae

Vertebrae of the upper back; there are usually 12 thoracic vertebrae.

Thorax

Anatomical area composed of the vertebral column and rib cage.

Tibia

Large bone of the lower leg; the "shin" bone. (Plural: tibiae)

Tibial tuberosity

Anteriorly projecting knob on the superior-anterior surface of the tibia.

Tightly flexed burial

Burial position in which the elbows are drawn into the torso and flexed so that the hands lie against the upper thorax, close to the base of the neck and the knees are drawn up to the abdomen, while the feet are in the proximity of the buttocks.

TMJ

See Temporal mandibular joint.

Toddler’s fracture

An oblique or spiral fracture where the ends do not separate; seen most often in the lower limbs (especially the tibia) of infants and toddlers.

Tooth set

Lateral deviation of saw teeth from the main axis of the blade that causes the kerf to be wider than the blade, preventing binding while sawing.

Tori

A raised area of a bone (e.g., supraorbital tori).

Torus or buckling fracture

Torus or buckling fracture is the result of compressive forces that cause an outward buckling of the cortex around the circumference of a bone.

Total Body Score

A method for determining the decompositional state of a human body, constructed by adding the numeric score associated with each of three body segments: head and neck, trunk, and limbs.

Trabecular bone

Bone that looks like a sponge that is found on the inside of bony structures, such as the head of the femur; it reinforces those structures while keeping them light in weight. Also called cancellous bone and spongy bone.

Transverse costal facets

Facets on the transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae 1 through 10 for articulation with the tubercle of the ribs.

Transverse foramen

Opening in the transverse process unique to the cervical vertebrae.

Transverse fracture

A type of fracture that crosses the diaphysis at right angles to the long axis of the bone.

Transverse organization

As used here, refers to series of billows and/or striations that traverse the auricular surface.

Transverse palatine suture

The transverse palatine suture separates the maxillae from the palatines.

Transverse process

Process that projects laterally from either side of the vertebral arch near the pedicle.

Transverse ridges

Raised lines on the anterior sacrum where the sacral bodies fuse.

Trauma

A pathological category defined as injury caused to living tissue by an outside force.

Trauma-induced pseudarthrosis

A pseudarthrosis resulting from improper healing between two segments of a broken bone.

Trephination

Holes cut through the braincase that are the result of a surgery on a living person. Also called trepination.

Trochlea

Articular surface on the inferior part of humerus for articulation with the ulna and radius.

Trochlear notch

The half-moon shaped articular surface of the proximal end of the ulna.

Tubercle

A small, round projection or protuberance in a bone for attachment of a tendon.

Tuberosity

A large raised and roughened area on the bone that is usually the site of the attachment of ligaments or tendons.

U

Ulna

Medial bone of the lower arm in the anatomical position. (Plural: ulnae)

Ulnar head

Rounded part on the inferior end of the ulna, for articulation with wrist bones.

Ulnar interosseous boarder (crest)

The sharpest edge of the ulnar diaphysis.

Ulnar notch

Notch on the medial surface of the distal end of the radius that articulates with the ulna.

Ulnar styloid process

A small, inferiorly extending protrusion on the posterior side of the inferior end of the ulna.

Uncinate processes

Raised rim on the lateral side of the superior vertebral body that forms a saddle for articulation with the body of the adjacent vertebra; unique to the cervical vertebrae.

Ungulates

Hoofed animals, such as cows, deer, and elk.

USGS quadrangle

A map developed by the U.S. Geological Survey office that depicts geographic features on a scale of 1 centimeter per quarter kilometer.

V

Ventral arc

Raised area on the anterior surface of the pubis that is more prominent in females than males.

Ventral infraspinous plane

See infraspinous fossa.

Vertebrae

Bones of the spinal column. (Singular: vertebra)

Vertebrae body

The oval, weight-bearing part of the vertebrae; also called the centrum.

Vertebral arch

Part of the vertebrae that arches away from the body (centrum), forming the vertebral foramen that allows for passage of the nerve column down the spine.

Vertebral body (Centrum)

Main weight-bearing part of vertebra.

Vertebral foramen

Opening between the body and vertebral arch.

Vertex

Highest point on the midline of the skull when it is held in the Frankfort horizon; there is a skull landmark by the same name.

Vertical fracture

Fracture caused by compressive forces which split a bone along its long axis.

Visual assessment

As used here, the process of scanning the ground for human remains and their associated materials.

Vomer

Bone that separates the posterior part of the nasal aperture into right and left halves.

W

Wastage

Refers to fragments separated from the main section of the bone; most commonly seen in trauma caused by chopping instruments (e.g., axes).

Wedging

Deformity of the vertebrae, where the anterior part of the body is thinner than the posterior part; seen in many older persons.

Wide focus

As used here, indicates that force is delivered over a large area of bone.

Word qualifiers

As used here, refers to words that imply probability (e.g., “it is unlikely that he was over six feet tall").

Wormian bones

Accessory bones in the lambdoid suture; they are most common in people of Asian origin.

X

Xiphoid process

Tab of cartilage that extends inferiorly from the corpus sterni; can ossify in older people.

Z

Zygomatic

The cheekbone; it articulates with the maxilla and temporal, and forms the anterior, lateral margin of the eye orbit. (Plural: zygomatics)

Zygomatic arch

Arch of bone composed anteriorly of the zygomatic bone and posteriorly by a projection of the temporal, called the zygomatic process.

Zygoorbitale

The point at which zygomaxillary suture contacts the lower border of the eye.